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CASS  ELL'S 

CARPENTRY  and  JOINERY 


COMPRISING  NOTES  ON  MATERIALS,  PROCESSES,  PRINCIPLES, 
AND  PRACTICE,  INCLUDING  1,803  ENGRAVINGS 
AND  TWELVE  COLOURED  PLATES 


EDITED  BY 

PAUL  N.  HASLUCK 

Editor  of  "Work"   and  "Building  World,"  etc. 


PHILADELPHIA 
DAVID    MCKAY,  PUBLISHER 

610.  SOUTH  WASHINGTON  SQUARE 
1908 


I  ROB 


c  c  c  c  c  c  c 


,.ENTE« 


PREFACE 


Cassell's  Carpentry  and  Joinery  is  a  practical  work  on  practical  handicrafts, 
and  it  is  published  in  the  confident  belief  that  it  is  by  far  the  most  exhaustive 
book  on  these  subjects  hitherto  produced.  Throughout  this  book  actual  practice 
is  recorded;  mere  discussion  of  theory  has  been  excluded,  except  where  it  is 
essential  in  explaining  the  principles  underlying  a  method,  a  process,  or  the 
action  of  a  tool.  The  tools  and  processes  described  are  those  commonly  found 
in  daily  use  in  the  workshop.  The  expert  and  well-informed  reader  will  of 
course  make  due  allowance  for  the  great  diversities  of  trade  practice  in 
different  localities. 

Much  of  the  matter  appearing  in  these  pages  has  been  written  and  over  half 
of  the  illustrations  have  been  prepared  by  Mr.  C.  W.  D.  Boxall,  Gold  Medallist 
of  the  Carpenters'  Company,  City  and  Guilds  Honours  Medallist,  First  Prize- 
man of  the  Joiners'  Company,  Board  of  Education  Honours  Medallist,  etc.,  etc. 
Two  other  eminent  authorities,  Prof.  Henry  Adams  and  Mr.  F.  W.  Loasby, 
have  also  contributed  largely.  The  names  of  these  experts  are  a  guarantee  of 
competency  and  thoroughness.  There  are  also  valuable  articles  hy  several  other 
well-known  practical  contributors  to  "  Building  World." 

Students  preparing  for  examinations  in  which  Carpentry  and  Joinery  are 
involved  will  welcome  this  as  a  text  book  of  the  utmost  value  and  importance  ; 
and  its  intensely  practical  character — in  every  possible  instance  the  information 
is  imparted  by  investigating,  describing,  and  illustrating  cases  that  have  occurred 
in  actual  experience — renders  the  work  extremely  useful  as  a  guide  to  everyday 
practice,  as  the  volume  includes  virtually  everything  that  relates  to  the  materials, 
processes,  principles,  and  practice  of  Carpentry  and  Joinery. 

The  comprehensive  scope  of  the  work  is  evident  from  a  glance  at  the  list 
of  contents.  Each  of  the  various  sections  is  dealt  with  in  exhaustive  detail, 
some  of  the  sections  extending  to  nearly  100  pages ;  and  the  studiously  plain 
language  used  throughout  the  book  is  further  assisted  by  the  use  of  skilfully 
drawn  diagrams,  which  are  supplemented  by  twelve  full-page  coloured  plates. 

P.  N.  HASLUCK. 


18304 


CONTENTS 

PAQB 

Hand  Tools  and  Appliances  (123  Illustrations)        .      .             ,       .  1 

Timber  (54  Illustrations)                                                 .       .  "     ,       .  26 

Joints  (135  Illustrations)   54 

Floors  (89  Illustrations)   68 

Timber  Partitions  (28  Illustrations)   9*8 

Timber  Roofs  (236  Illustrations)   112 

Framework  of  Dormer  Windows  (42  Illustrations)   180 

Half-timber  Construction  (49  Illustrations)   199 

Gantries,  Staging,  and  Shoring  (75  Illustrations)   215 

Arch  Centerings  (104  Illustrations)   250 

Joiners'  Rods  (79  Illustrations)   289 

Doors  and  Door  Frames  (295  Illustrations)   312 

Window  Sashes  and  Casements  (209  Illustrations)   404 

Mouldings:  Working  and  Setting-out  (70  Illustrations)       .      .       .  468 

Skirtings,  Dados,  Panelwork,  Linings,  etc.  (103  Illustrations)      .       .  481 

Partitions  and  Screens  (86  Illustrations)   520 

Bevels:  Finding  and  Setting-out  (25  Illustrations)   550 

Index   557 


LIST  OF  COLOURED  PLATES 


I. — Cihcular-Headed  Casement  Window      .       .       .  Frontispiece 

11. — Interior  Doorway  with  Dado  .  ...  Jo  face  page  48 

III— Boxing  Shutters  to  Sash  Window       ...  „  96 

IV. — Lantern  Light  with  Gable  Ends   ....  „  144 

y. — Carriage  Entrance  Gates   „  192 

VI. — Wooden  Framed  Stable   „  240 

VII. — Newel  Staircase  with  Winders  in  Half-Space  .  „  288 

VIII. — Half-Timbered  Porch  and  Entrance  Doorway   .  „  336 

IX. — Construction  of  a  Lean-to  Conservatory    .       .  „  "  384 

X. — Design  for  a  Shop  Front   „  432 

XI. — Cabinet- Work  Fixtures  for  a  Small  Hotel  Bar  „  480 

XII. — Construction  of  a  Bell  or  Ventilating  Turret 

Framed  to  Roof   „  528 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY 


HAND   TOOLS   AND  APPLIANCES. 


Introduction. 

The  reader  of  this  book  is  assumed  to 
have  some  acquaintance  with  woodworking, 
and  not  to  stand  in  need  of  detail  instruc- 
tion as  to  the  shape,  action,  care  and  use 
of  each  and  all  of  a  woodworker's  tools. 
This  information  is  given  in  comprehensive 
style  in  a  companion  volume,  entitled 
"  Woodworking,"  produced  by  the  Editor 
of  this  present  book,  and  sold  by  the  same 


testing  work — such  tools  are  rules,  straight- 
edges, gauges,  etc.  (2)  Tools  for  supporting 
and  holding  work  ;  such  tools  are  benches, 
vices,  stools,  etc.  (3)  Paring  or  shaving 
tools,  such  as  chisels,  spokeshaves,  planes, 
etc.  (4)  Saws.  (5)  Percussion  or  impel- 
ling   tools,    such    as    hammers,  mallets 


Fig.  1.— Two-foot  Rule  with  Slide  Rule. 

publishers  at  9s.  Should  any  reader  of 
this  chapter  desire  further  particulars  of 
the  tools  and  appliances  here  briefly  men- 
tioned, he  is  recommended  to  consult  that 
work,  which  undoubtedly  contains  the 
most  complete  description  of  woodworking 
tools  yet  published. 

Classification  of  Tools. 

Tools  may  be  classed  according  to  their 
functions  and  modes  of  action,  as  follows  : 
(1)  Geometrical  tools  for  laying  off  and 


Fig.  2. — Combined  Marking 
Awl  and  Striking  Knife. 


screw -drivers,  and  (combined  with  cutting) 
hatchets,  axes,  adzes,  etc.  (6)  Boring 
tools,  such  as  gimlets,  brace-bits,  etc. 
(7)  Abrading  and  scraping  tools,  such  as 
rasps,  scrapers,  glasspaper,  and  implements 
such  as  whetstones,  etc.,  for  sharpening 
edged  tools. 

Geometrical  Tools. 

Rules. — For  all-round  purposes  a  2-ft. 
four-fold  boxwood  rule,  with  or  without  a 
slide  rule  (Fig.  1),  is  best.  Eules  are  made 
in  great  variety,  but  the  average  worker's 
requirements  will  be  best  met  by  a  simple  one. 


2 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


HAND  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


3 


Marking  and  Scribing. — The  carpenter's 
lead  pencil  is  of  a  flat,  oval  section,  sharpened 
to  a  chisel  edge,  which  has  a  greater  body 
of  lead  than  a  point,  and  lasts  a  reasonable 
time  before  requiring  to  be  re-sharpened. 
The  marking  awl  and  the  striking  knife, 
shown  in  Fig.  2  as  a  combined  tool,  is 
used  by  joiners  principally  for  scribing, 
or  cutting-in,  the  shoulders  of  framing,  etc. 
Greater  accuracy  can  be  attained  and  a 
sharper  arris  is  left  when  sawing  than 
when  working  to  a  pencil  line. 

Straight-edge. — Mechanics  in  the  building 
trades  use  a  straight-edge,  usually  made 
to  the  shape  shown  by  Fig.  3,  and  not  larger 
than  15  ft.  long,  6  in.  wide,  and  IJ  in.  thick, 
made  from  a  pine  board  cut  from  a  straight- 


Fig.  11. — Panel  Gauge. 


grown  tree.  All  straight-edges  should  be 
tested  occasionally. 

Squares  and  Bevels. — These  are  used  for 
setting  out  and  testing  work.  The  joiner's 
steel  square  is  a  mere  right  angle  of  steel, 
sometimes  nickel-plated,  graduated  in  inches, 
J  in.  and  yV  ^^-y  or  otherwise  as  required. 
The  try  square  (Fig.  4)  has  a  rosewood  or 
ebony  stock.  The  tool  shown  by  Fig.  5  is 
also  of  use  in  setting  out  and  testing  mitres, 
but  the  proper  mitre  square  is  shown  by 
Fig.  6.  Try  squares  are  also  made  with 
iron  frames  which  are  channelled  and  per- 
forated to  reduce  weight.  Adjustable 
squares  with  graduated  blades  are  useful 
in  putting  fittings  on  doors  and  windows. 
By  means  of  the  sliding  bevel  (Fig.  7) 
angles  are  set  off  in  duplicate ;  the  set 
screw  secures  the  blade  at  any  desired 
angle  with  the  stock.  A  crenellated  square 
has  a  blade  which  is  notched  at  every 
principal  graduation,  and  is  used  chiefly 
for  setting  ouu  mortises  and  tenons. 


Marking  Work  for  Sawing. — The  chalk 
line  is  used  for  long  pieces  of  timber,  the 
pencil  and  rule  for  ordinary  applications, 
and  the  scribe  for  particular  work.  The 
"  chalk  line  "  is  a  piece  of  fine  cord  rubbed 
with  chalk  or  black  pigment,  and  strained 
taut.  To  mark  the  work  the  chalk  line  is 
lifted  vertically  and  near  the  centre,  and 
when  released  makes  a  fine  and  perfectly 
straight  line  upon  the  work.  Coloured 
chalks  and  pigments  are  also  used. 

Marking  and  Cutting  Gauges. — Ordinarily 
the  carpenter  draws  a  line  close  to  and 
parallel  to  the  edge  of  a  board  by  means 
of  a  rule  held  in  one  hand,  with  the  fore- 


Fig.  12.— Wing  Fig.  13.— Spring 

Compasses.  Dividers. 


finger  against  the  edge  of  the  work  and  the 
pencil  held  close  against  the  end  of  the  rule  ; 
but  the  marking  gauge  (Fig.  8)  gives  more 
accurate  results.  The  gauge  may  have  a 
pencil  point  instead  of  the  steel  point 
shown.  Developments  are  the  mortise 
gauge  (Fig.  9)  and  the  cutting  gauge  (Fig. 
10),  having  either  a  square  or  oval  sliding 
stock  or  head.  The  panel  gauge  (Fig.  11)  is 
used  to  mark  a  line  parallel  to  the  true  edge 
of  a  panel  or  of  any  piece  of  wood  too  wide  for 
the  ordinary  gauge  to  take  in. 

Compasses,  Dividers,  and  Callipers.— 
Ordinary   wing   compasses  (Fig.   12)  are 


4 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY 


generally  used,  but  for  particular  work  in- 
struments with  fine  or  sensitive  adjustments 
are  obtainable.  Spring  dividers  (Fig.  13) 
are  used  for  stepping  ofi  a  number  of  equal 
distances,  for  transferring  measurements  and 
for  scribing.  Callipers  (Figs.  14  and  15),  ob- 
tainable  in   many   styles,    are   used  for 


Fig.  14.— Outside  Fig.  15. — Inside 

Callipers.  Callipers. 


measuring  diameters  of  cylindrical  solids 
and  recesses. 

Shooting  Boards. — The  shooting  board 
(Fig.  16)  is  used  for  trueing  up  with  a 
plane  the  edges  of  square  stuS.  That 
shown  is  the  simplest  possible,  but  other 
and  improved  shapes  are  obtainable. 

Appliances  for  Mitreing. — The  simplest 
appliance  used  in  cutting  mitres  is  the 
ordinary  mitre  block,  the  work  being  laid 


upon  a  rebate,  and  saw  kerfs  in  the  upper 
block  serving  as  a  guide  for  the  tenon  saw. 
Inclined  and  other  varieties  of  mitre  blocks 
are  in  use.  The  mitre  box  (Fig.  17)  is 
generally  used  for  broader  mouldings. 
The  mitre  shooting  block  (Fig.  18)  is  used 


for  shooting  or  planing  the  mitred  ends 
of  stuff  previously  sawn  in  the  mitre  block 
or  box  ;  in  the  illustration  the  rebate  or 
bed  for  the  work  is  cut  out  of  the  solid, 
but  it  is  general  to  build  up  the  block 
with  three  thicknesses  of  stufi,  and  so  avoid 
cutting  a  rebate.  The  donkey's-ear  shoot- 
ing block  (Fig.  19)  is  used  for  mitreing  or 
bevelling  the  edges  of  wide  but  thin  material 
with  the  cut  at  right  angles  to  that  adopted 
for  stouter  mouldings ;    another  form  of 


this  block  (Fig,  20)  has  a  rest  A  for  the 
material,  a  bed  b  for  the  shooting  plane, 
a  guide  c  for  the  plane,  and  a  frame  d 
which  is  fixed  in  the  bench  screw  or  to 
the  tail  of  the  bench.  The  mitre  template 
(Fig.  21)  is  another  aid  to  cutting  mitres. 
Its  use  will  be  explained  on  a  later  page. 

Spirit  Levels. — The  spirit  level  is  used  for 
determining  the  planes  of  the  horizon — that 
is,  the  plane  forming  a  right  angle  to  the 
vertical  plane.  A  frame  firmly  holds  a 
closed  glass  tube  nearly  filled  with  an- 
hydrous ether,  or  with  a  mixture  of  ether 
and  alcohol  (see  Fig.  22).  Good  spirit 
levels  have  a  graduated  scale  engraved  on 
the  glass  tube  or  on  a  metal  rule  fastened 
to  the  frame  beside  it.  There  are  many 
varieties  of  spirit  levels,  but  all  are  made 
on  the  same  principle. 


Plumb  Rule  and  Square. — The  plumb  rule 
(Fig.  23)  is  used  by  the  carpenter  and  fixer 
for  testing  the  vertical  position  of  pieces 
of  timber,  framing,  doorposts,  sash  frames, 
etc.,  which  should  be  fixed  upright.  The 
plumb  square  (Fig.  24)  is  useful  for  testing 


Fig.  16. — Shooting  Board. 


Fig.  17.— Mitre  Box  with 
Dovetail  Saw. 


Mitre  Shooting  Block. 


HAND  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


5 


the  squareness  of  work  and  at  the  same 
time  the  levelness  of  a  head,  it  being  for 
this  purpose  sometimes  more  useful  than 
a  spirit  level. 


worker  and  by  the  kind  of  work  to  be  done. 
A  joiner's  bench  of  the  usual  pattern 
is  shown  by  Fig.  25.  It  is  12  ft.  long,  by 
2  ft.  6  in.  wide,  and  3  ft.  high.  The  legs 
are  4  in.  by  4  in.  ;  bearers  and  rails,  4  in.  by 


Fig.  19.— Donkey's-ear  Shooting  Block. 

-3^2-- 


Fig.  20. — Donkey's-ear  Block  for  Shooting  Wide 
Surfaces. 


Fig.  22. — Spirit  Level. 


i 


Fig.  21. — Mitre  Template. 


Fig.  23.— Plumb 
Rule. 


Tools  for  Supporting  and  Holding 
Work. 

Benches.  —  The  ordinary  joiner's  bench 
should  not  be  less  than  about  8  ft.  long,  2  ft. 
6  in.  to  3  ft.  high,  and  2  ft.  6  in.  wide,  and 
should  be  fitted  with  wood  or  iron  bench 
screws  so  as  to  accommodate  one  or  two 
workers.  Of  course,  the  height  of  the  bench 
will  be  influenced  by  the  Stature  of  the 


Fig.  24.— Plumb  Square 


3  in.  ;  sides,  IJ  in.  by  9  in.  ;  top,  IJ  in.  by 
9  in.    The  bench  top  is  mortised  at  A  to 


Fig.  26.— Ordinary  Joiner's  Bench  fitted  with  Instantaneous  Vice 


HAND  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


7 


receive  the  stop,  which  is  of  the  pattern 
shown  by  Fig.  32,  so  that  it  fits  tightly 
against  the  leg  of  the  bench.  Fig.  26  shows 
a  joiner's  bench  of  another  pattern,  fitted 
with  a  good  form  of  instantaneous  grip 
vice  ;   and  another  variety  of  this  useful 


Fig.  27.— Bench  with  Side  and  Tail  Vices. 


class  of  vice  is  shown  in  section  at  Fig.  31. 
A  bench  with  side  and  tail  vices  is  illus- 
trated at  Fig.  27,  and,  although  not  much 
used  by  joiners,  is  a  very  useful  form  for 
small  work  or  as  a  portable  bench.  The 
top  and  tail  vice  cheeks  contain  holes  for 
the  reception  of  bench  stops  of  iron  or  wood, 
against  which,  or  between  which,  work  is 
held  for  framing,  etc. 


Fig.  29. — Inside  View  of  Screw  Vice. 

Bench  Screws. — A  common  form  of  joiner's 
bench  screw  is  shown  by  Fig.  28,  inside 
and  sectional  views  being  shown  respectively 
by  Figs.  29  and  30.  d  is  the  side  or  cheek 
of  the  bench  to  which  a  wooden  nut  (a) 
is  screwed.    The  box  b,  which  accurately 


fits  the  runner  shown  inside  it,  is  fixed  to 
the  top  rail  connecting  the  legs,  and  to 
the  top  and  side  of  the  bench.  Care  is 
taken  to  keep  the  runner  at  right  angles 


Fig.  28, — Wooden  Bench  Screw  Vice. 


to  the  vice  cheeks.  To  fasten  the  vice 
outer  cheek  and  screw  together,  so  that 
upon  turning  the  latter  the  former  will 
follow  it,  a  groove  e  is  cut.  .  Then  from 
the  under  edge  of  the  cheek  a  mortise  is 
made,  and  a  hardwood  key  is  driven  to 
fit  fairly  tight  into  the  mortise,  its  end 


Fig.  30. — Section  through  Screw  Vice. 


entering  e.  The  screw  cheek  is  usually 
about  1  ft.  9  in.  long,  9  in.  wide,  and  2  in. 
to  3  in;  thick.  The  runner  is  about  3  in. 
by  3  in.  and  2  ft.  long.  The  wooden  screws 
and  nuts  can  be  bought  ready  made. 
Bench  screws  are  known  in  great  variety. 


8 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


and  include  an  instantaneous  grip  vice  (Fig. 
31),  a  most  useful  appliance. 

Bench  Stops. — There  are  many  varieties 
of  iron  bench  stops  on   the  market,  but 


the  ordinary  "  knock  up  "  stop,  which  is 
a  piece  of  hard  wood  about  2  in.  to  2J  in. 
square,  and  9  in.  to  18  in;  long,  fitting 
tightly  into  a  mortise  in  the  top  of  the 


Fig.  31. — Instantaneous  Grip  Vice. 


Fig.  32.— Wooden  Bench 
Stop. 


Figs.  33  and  34. — Wooden  Bench  Stop. 


Fig.  35. — Hinge  used  as  Bench  Stop. 

bench,  is  still  largely  used.  This  is  the 
best  form  of  stop  for  all  ordinary  purposes. 
It  is  cut  wedge  shape,  as  shown  by  Fig.  32. 
This  stop  is  raised  and  lowered  by  knocking 


Fig.  36  — Iron 
Bench  Stop. 


Fig.  38.— Morrill's  Adjust- 
able Bench  Stop. 


Fig.  37.— Adjustable  Iron  Bench  Stop. 

with  a  hammer  at  top  or  bottom.  The 
plane  is  not  injured  if  it  comes  into  con- 
tact with  the  stop,  which  also  has  greater 
strength  than  temporary  stops  screwed 
to  the  face  of  the  bench  top.    An  improved 


HAND  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


9 


form  of  this  is  shown  at  Figs.  33  and  34. 
A  block  is  screwed  to  the  stop,  and  to  this 
the  nut  of  an  ordinary  shutter  bolt  is 
fixed.  A  slot  is  cut  in  the  cheek  of  the 
bench,  as  shown.  The  shoulder  of  the  bolt 
works  against  a  large  washer.  This  stop  can 
readily  be  raised  or  lowered;  Two  or  three 
steel  nails  driven  in  near  the  top  of  the  stop 
and  filed  to  form  teeth  can  be  used  to  hold 
the  work.  A  very  useful  stop  may  be  con- 
trived, as  shown  by  Fig.  35,  by  filing  one 
end  of  a  back  flap  hinge  so  as  to  form  teeth, 
the  other  flap  being  screwed  down  to  the 
bench.  A  long  screw  through  the  middle 
hole  in  the  loose  flap  affords  means  of 
adjustment.  By  loosening  this  long  screw, 
the  front  edge  of  the  stop  may  be  raised, 


Fig.  39. — Sawing  Stool. 


but  to  retain  it  in  its  position  it  should 
be  packed  up  with  a  piece  of  wood,  and 
the  screw  tightened  down  again.  A  plain 
iron  stop  with  a  side  spring  to  keep  it  at 
any  desired  height  is  shown  by  Fig.  36. 
This  form  of  stop  fits  into  holes  mortised 
through  the  bench  top.  Figs.  37  and  38 
show  good  forms  of  adjustable  bench  stops 
that  are  obtainable  from  tool-dealers  ;  their 
principle  is  fairly  obvious  on  reference  to 
the  illustrations. 

Sawing  Stools  or  Trestles. — The  three-leg 
sawing  stool  is  of  but  little  service  and 
almost  useless  for  supporting  work  in 
course  of  sawing.  Probably  one  of  the  best 
forms  of  this  useful  appliance  is  the  four- 
legged  stool  shown  by  Fig.  39.  This  needs 
to  be  built  substantially. 

Cramps. — A  hold-fast  for  temporarily 
securing  work  to  the  bench  is  shown  by 
Fig.  40.  The  old-fashioned  hand-screw  cramp 
1* 


(Fig.  41)  is  made  of  wood  entirely.  It  is 
a  very  useful  tool  in  the  joiner's  shop, 
and  is  used  for  holding  together  pieces  of 
wood  when  glued  for  thicknessing  up.  It  is 
indispensable  when  glueing  up  face  veneers 
for  shop  fittings,  etc. ;  these  screws  are 
made  in  different  sizes  suitable  for  heavy 
and  light  work.  Iron  G-cramps  are  a  very 
useful  form,  the  smaller  sizes  being  made 
with  a  thumbscrew  (Fig.  42)  and  being  used 
for  light  purposes.  The  stronger  and  larger 
kinds  will  take  in  work  up  to  12  in. ;  greater 


force  being  required,  the  screws  are  rotated 
by  means  of  the  usual  lever.  The  many 
varieties  of  iron  cramps  include  the  Hammer 
instantaneous  adjustment  cramp  and  a  sUd- 
ing  pattern  G-cramp,  both  of  which  have 
advantages  in  many  cases  over  the  common 
G-cramp,  a  form  of  which,  with  thumbscrew, 
is  illustrated  by  Fig.  42  (p.  10).  Sash 
cramps  and  joiner's  cramps  (also  shown  on 
p.  10 — see  Fig.  43)  are  in  common  use,  a  num- 
ber of  patent  cramps  with  special  advan- 
tages also  being  known.  Figs.  44  and  45 
show  a  useful  cramp  for  thin  work.  The 
wedge  cramp  (Fig.  46),  known  as  a  cleat,  is 
also  very  useful  for  holding  boards  together 
after  they  have  been  j  ointed  and  glued.  ^  The 
cleats  are  kept  on  till  the  glue  in  the  joint 
is  dry.  The  wedges  prevent  the  board  from 
casting.    Iron  dogs  (Figs.  47  and  48)  are 


10 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  41. — Wooden 
Hand  Screw 
Cramp. 


a 

1 1 

1 

i 

Fig.  42.— Iron  G- 
Cramp  with  Thumb- 
screw. 


Fig.  44. 


Fig.  45. 


Figs.  44  and  45.— Wooden  Cramp  for  Thin  Work. 


Fig.  43. — Iron  Sash  Cramp  or  Joiners'  Cramp. 

used  for  driving  into  the  ends  of  boards 
which  have  been  jointed  and  glued,  to  pull 
together  the  joint,  and  for  similar  purposes 
by  the  joiner.  They  are  also  used  for  draw- 
ing together  face  joints  when  glued,  but 
only  in  cases  where  the  holes  made  by  the 
dogs  are  to  be  covered  afterwards  by  another 
piece  of  lining.  A  stronger  form  is  also 
sometimes  used  by  the  carpenter  for 
common  flooring.  The  dog  is  driven  into 
the  joist  firmly,  there  being  enough  space 
between  the  dog  and  the  edge  of  the  floor- 
board to  admit  a  pair  of  folding  wedges,. 


HAND  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


11 


which  are  then  driven  tight  home,  and  the 
floorboards  nailed  down  before  removing  the 
dog.  More  suitable  cramps  for  this  purpose 
are  those  usually  known  as  floor  cramps  or 
dogs,  illustrations  and  particulars  of  which 


Fig.  46. — Wedge  Cramp  or  Cleat. 


will  be  found  in  the  section  on  floors. 
Cramps  and  similar  appliances  in  less  general 
use,  but  of  importance  in  special  cases,  will 
be  illustrated  and  their  use  explained,  in  each 
of  the  particular  sections  to  which  they 
belong.  For  cramping  circular  work  there 
are  many  special  devices,  the  flexible  steel 
cramp  (Fig.  49)  being  typical  of  them.  The 
flexible  cramp  is  shown  in  use,  tightening  up 


Fig.  49. — Circular  Seat  -with  Flexible  Cramp. 


the  four  joints  used  in  the  construction  of  a 
circular  seat  or  other  piece  of  work. 

Pincers, — These  are  used  for  extracting 
and  beheading  nails,  and  in  cases  where  a 
form  of  hand  vice  is  wanted  for  momentary 


use.  Two  chief  patterns  are  available,  Fig. 
50  showing  the  Lancashire  pattern.  Tower 


M 

[ 

■i 

..M:iU;;; 

1  nil 

inlii 

I 

iilsiP 

Fig.  47. — Joiners'  Dog. 

pincers  have  a  round  knob  in  place  of  the 
cone  on  the  end  of  the  handle. 

Paring  and  Shaving  Tools. 
Chisels. — For  full  information  as  to  the 
action  of  these  tools  readers  are  referred 
to  ' '  Woodworking,"  the  companion  volume 
already  alluded  to.    Firmer  chisels  shown  by 


Fig.  48. — Dog  made  from  Sheet  Steel. 


Fig.  51  range  from  -J  in.  to  1 J  in.  in  width, 
and  their  use  is  to  cut  away  superfluous  wood 
in  thin  chips.  The  ordinary  kind  is  strong 
and  is  made  of  solid  steel,  and  is  used  with 
the  aid  of  a  mallet.    A  lighter  form  made 


Fig.  50. — Lancashire-Pattern  Pincers. 


with  bevelled  edges  (Fig.  52)  is  used,  gene- 
rally without  a  mallet,  for  fine  work  and  for 
cutting  dovetailed  mortises.  For  paring, 
a  longer  chisel  is  generally  employed  (Fig. 
53).  Mortise  chisels  (Fig.  54)  have  various 
shapes,  according  to  their  particular  uses, 
and  require  to  be  strongly  made. 


12 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  51. — Ordinary  Firmer  Chisel. 


Fig.  53. — Long  Paring  Chisel. 


Fig.  54. — Mortise  Chisel. 


Fig.  55.— Firmer  Gouge. 


Fig.  56.— Draw  Knife. 


Fig.  57.— Wooden  Spokeshave. 


Fig.  58. — Iron  Spokeshave. 


HAND  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


13 


Gouges. — These  have  the  same  action 
as  that  of  a  chisel,  but  instead  of  being 


Fig.  59.— Sectional  View  of  Plane. 

flat  their  sections  form  arcs  of  circles 
(see  Fig.  55). 

Draw  Knife.— The  draw  knife  (Fig.  56) 
is  used  for  roughing  stuff  to 
shape  preparatory  to  working 
with  finer  tools. 

Spokeshaves. — An  ordinary 
spokeshave  is  merely  a  knife 
edge  in  a  suitable  holder  (Fig. 
67)  ;  it  may  jump  if  the  iron 
is  loose,  or  if  the  back  part 
of  the  iron  touches  the  work 
before    the    cutting  edge. 


Planes. — These  are  the  tools  chiefly  used 
for  smoothing  work  which  has  been  sawn 
to  approximate  size.  The  simplest  plane 
is  a  chisel  firmly  fixed  into  a  wooden  block. 
The  construction  of  an  ordinary  plane  is 
shown  in  the  sectional  view  (Fig.  59), 
in  which  a  shows  the  stock  ;  b,  the  wedge  ; 
o,  cutting  iron ;  d,  back  iron  ;  f,  screw 
and  nut  for  fastening  the  cutting  and  back 
irons  together  ;  the  mouth  through  which 
the  shavings  pass  upwards  is  shown.  The 
jack  plane  (Fig.  60)  is  the  first  plane  applied 
to  the  sawn  wood  ;  its  parts  are  :  the  stock, 
17  in.  long ;  the  toat,  or  handle ;  the 
wedge ;  the  cutting  iron,  or  cutter,  about 
2J  in.  wide ;  and  the  back  iron.  The 
trying  or  trueing  plane  (Fig.  61)  is  of  similar 
construction,  but  is  much  longer,  so  as  to 
produce  truer  surfaces.  A  still  longer  try- 
ing 'plane  called  the  jointer  is  used  for 
jointing  boards  in  long  lengths  ;  since  the 
introduction  of  machinery  it  is  seldom  used. 
The  smoothing  plane  (Fig.  62)  smooths  the 
work  to  form  a  finished  surface  ;  for  pine  or 
other  soft  woods  it  is  9  in.  long,  and  its  iron 
is  2J  in.  wide  on  the  cutting  face.  Some 


Fig.  60. — Jack  Plane. 


Fig.  61. — Trying  Plane. 

Spokeshaves  are  best  made  with  iron  stocks  smoothing  planes  have  iron  fronts,  as  shown 
and  with  screws  to  regulate  the  cutting  in  the  sectional  view.  Fig.  63  ;  these  can 
iron  (Fig.  58).  be  adjusted  for  the  finest  shaving  desired. 


14 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


A  good  form  of  iron  smoothing  plane 
is  shown  by  Fig.  64  ;  this  is  intended 
for  superior  work.  The  rebate  plane 
(Fig.  65)  is  without  a  back  iron,  and 
its  cutting  iron  extends  the  full  width 


Fig.  62.— Smoothing  Plane. 

of  the  tool,  thus  enabling  the  angles  of 
rebates  to  be  cleaned  up.  Other  varieties 
of  planes  include  the  bead  plane  (Figs.  66 
to  68),  used  for  working  single  and  return 
beads  and  round  rods.  Hollows,  rounds, 
etc.  (Figs.  69  to  73),  are  used  for  working 


is  made  of  steel  entirely.  The  sole  of 
the  plane  is  about  10  in.  long,  2i  in.  wide. 


Fig.  64. — Iron  Smoothing  Plane. 


and  aV  in.  thick.  It  is  adjusted  by  means 
of  a  screw,  and  with  it  both  concave  and 
convex  surfaces  may  be  worked  perfectly 


Smoothing  Plane.  Fig.  67.  Fig.  66.  Fig.  68. 


Figs.  66,  67,  and  68.— Bead  Plane. 

straight  mouldings  of  all  kinds ,  but  machinery 
has  of  late  years  been  increasingly  used 

for  such  work.    Small  planes  of  varying  rails.    The  sash  fiUister  (Fig.  74)  is  generally 

shapes  are  used  for  forming  mouldings  on  used  for  making  rebates  adjacent  to  the 

circular  work.    The  compass  plane,  used  back  side  of  the  stuff,  its  fence  working 

for  forming  the  face  of  concave  ribs,  etc.,  against  the  face  side.    When  rebates  have 

was  formerly  made  of  beech  wood.    The  to  be  made  next  to  the  face  side  of  the 

one  generally  used  at  the   present  time  work  a  side  fillister  (Fig.  75)  is  most  useful ; 


HAND  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


15 


its  fence  is  adjustable  to  the  face,  allowing 
a  rebate  to  be  made  of  any  width  within 
the  breadth  of  the  plane  iron.    These  planes, 


Fig.  69.— Hollow  Plane.     Fig.  70.— Round  Plane. 

and  also  the  plough  (Fig.  76),  are  principally 
used  for  grooving  with  the  grain.  They 
are  not  used  so  much  as  formerly,  owing 
to  the  introduction  of  machinery  in  large 


Fig.  71.— Sash    Fig.  72.— Sash    Fig.  73.— Ogee 
Plane.  Plane.        Moulding  Plane. 

shops,  but  they  are  still  indispensable  to 
most  joiners.  For  the  working  of  hard 
woods,  to  obtain  perfect  joints,  gun-metal 
or  iron  planes  known  as  the  shoulder 
plane  and  bullnose  plane  are  considered  in- 
dispensable, as  is  also  the  steel  smoothing 


Fig.  74.— Sash  Fillister. 


plane  which  is  used  for  cleaning  up  face 
work.  The  router,  or  "  old  woman's 
tooth  "  (Fig.  77),  is  used  for  working  out 


the  bottoms  of  rectangular  cavities  ;  the 
chariot  plane  (almost  obsolete),  is  used  for 
the  small  parts  of  work  which  the  smooth- 


Fig.  75.— Side  Fillister. 


ing  plane  cannot  get  at,  and  for  planing 
end  grain  and  cross-grain  work  ;  chamfer 
planes  are  used  for  taking  off  sharp  edges 
to  form  chamfers  ;  mitre  shooting  planes 


Fig.  76. — Plough. 


are  sufficiently  described  by  their  name ; 
and  the  plough  or  plough  plane  (Fig.  76), 
used  for  cutting  or  "  ploughing  "  grooves. 
There  are  many  other  varieties  of  planes ; 
the  names  and  uses  of  the  more  important 


Fig.  77. — Ordinary  Router. 


will  be  treated  upon  in  some  of  the  follow- 
ing sections.  Particulars  of  these  may  be 
found  readily  by  reference  to  the  index. 


16 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Hand  Saws. 

The  saw  cannot  be  classified  with  any 
other  tool.  It  is  essentially  a  tool  for  use 
across  the  fibre  of  the  wood,  and  the  separa- 
tion is  a  cutting,  not  a  tearing  action,  as  fully 
explained  in  the  work  already  alluded  to. 
The  carpenter  and  joiner  has  some  six  or 


tremes  it  would  be  impossible  to  substitute 
the  ripping  and  panel  saws  one  for  the 
other.  The  hand  saw,  however,  which  is  a 
kind  of  compromise  between  extremes,  is 
used    indiscriminately    for    all  purposes 


^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 


Fig.  78.— Hand  Saw. 


Fig.  79.— Tenon  Saw. 

eight  saws,  comprising  the  rip,  cross-cut, 
hand,  panel,  tenon,  dovetail,  bow  or  turn- 
ing, and  keyhole;  The  hand-saw  type  in- 
cludes the  iaand  saw  proper,  the  ripping, 
half-ripping,  and  panel  saws,  all  of  similar 
outline,  but  differing  in  dimensions  and  in 
form  and  size  of  teeth.  There  is  no  sharp 
distinction  between  these  tools,  as  they 
merge  one  into  the  other ;  yet  at  the  ex- 


Fig.  80. — Bow  or  Frame  Saw. 

especially  by  the  carpenter.  Fig.  78  is  a 
saw  with  nibbed  back.  Straight  back  and 
skew  back  or  round  back  saws  are  made,  and 
the  teeth  of  the  latter  do  not  require  to  be 
set.  The  typical  hand  saw  has  a  blade  which 
is  from  24  in.  to  28  in.  long.  Its  blade  is 
as  thin  as  possible,  consistent  with  suffi- 
cient strength  to  prevent  the  saw  buckling 
under  thrust ;    the  taper  of  the  blade  is 


HAND  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES 


17 


calculated  to  withstand  the  thrusting  stress 
without  unduly  increasing  the  mass  of 
metal.  The  teeth  are  bent  to  right  and 
left  alternately — this  being  known  as  the 


I  I 

Fig.  81.— Compass  Saw.         Fig.  82.— Pad  Saw. 

set — and  their  outHne  is  angular.  The 
teeth  are  so  sharpened  that  their  outer 
points  enter  the  wood  first,  the  fibre  being 
divided  by  a  gradually  incisive  kind  of 
action.  Six  teeth  to  the  inch  are  suitable 
for  a  hand  saw  used  for  cutting  rough  stuff, 
trimming  joists,  cutting  rafters,  etc.  For 


its  teeth,  three  to  the  inch,  are  sharpened 
square  across  the  blade  and  set  very  much 
forward  ;  this  saw  is  used  for  cutting  along 
the  grain,  known  as  ripping.  The  tenon 
saw  (Fig.  79)  is  used  for  cutting  shoulders 
and  in  all  cases  where  a  clean  cut  is  essen- 
tial ;  it  obtains  this  by  means  of  its  fine 
teeth.^  The  dovetail  saw  is  a  small  tenon 
saw,  it  being  6  in.  or  8  in.  long,  whereas 
the  ordinary  tenon  saw  is  12  in.  or  14  in. 


Fig.  83.  Fig.  84. 


Figs.  83  and  84.— Improved  Saw  Vice. 

long.  The  bow  saw,  known  also  as  the 
turning  saw  or  frame  saw  (Fig.  80),  cuts  out 
curved  work  with  or  across  the  grain,  the 
compass,  turning,  or  lock  saw  (Fig.  81)  being 
used  for  a  similar  purpose,  and  in  cases  where 
a  large  saw  could  not  be  employed.  A  key- 
hole or  pad  saw  (Fig.  82)  is  used  for  small 
internal  curved  work. 

Appliances  for  Sharpening  Saws. — For 
holding  a  hand  saw  during  the  process  of 
sharpening,  a  saw  vice  (Figs.  83  and  84) 
is  used,  there  being  many  designs  to  choose 
from.  For  sharpening  English  hand  saws, 
the    triangular    file    (Fig.    85)    is  com- 


Fig.  85.— Triangular  Saw  File. 


joiners'  work  the  panel  saw,  2  in.  or  3  in. 
shorter  and  much  narrower,  thinner,  and 
lighter  than  the  hand  saw,  is  preferable.  The 
rip  saw  has  a  blade  about  28  in.  long,  and 


monly  used  ;  its  size  varies  with  that  of 
the  saw  for  which  it  is  required.  Special 
shapes  of  files  are  necessary  for  sharpening 
American  cross-cut    and  rip  saws.  Saw 


18 


CARPENTEY  AND  JOINERY. 


files  are  made  in  three  degrees  of  fineness. 
For  levelling  down  or  topping  saw  teeth 
preparatory  to  sharpening,  a  flat  file  is 
necessary.  The  angles  of  saw  teeth  are  set 
ofi  with  a  protractor  or  hinged  rule.  For 
setting  the  teeth  after  they  have  been 
sharpened — that  is,  to  bend  each  alternate 
tooth  to  one  side — saw  sets  (Fig.  86)  are 
used,  or  instead,  patent  contrivances  are 
brought  into  requisition,  these  being  so 
arranged  that  all  the  teeth  can  readily  be 
set  to  one  Hne.  A  useful  form  of  pHer  saw 
set  is  shown  by  Fig.  87,  and  the  method  of 


hammer  head.  There  is  the  Exeter  or 
London  pattern  (Fig.  90),  the  Warrington 


Fig.  86. — Saw  Set  with  Gauge. 

using  it  by  Fig.  88.  The  amount  of  set 
can  be  regulated  by  the  adjusting  screw  a. 
For  hammer  setting,  however,  a  setting  iron 
with  bevelled  edges  is  secured  in  the  vice, 
the  saw  laid  flat  upon  it,  and  the  teeth 
struck  one  at  a  time  with  the  pene  of  a  small 
hammer  (Fig.  89).  This  is  the  most  satis- 
factory method  of  setting  saw  teeth  when 
the  operator  has  the  necessary  skill. 


Fig.  87.— Flier  Saw  Set. 


(Fig.  91),  and  the  adze-eye  claw  pattern 
(Fig.  92),  the  last  named  being  less  used 


Fig.  88.— Method  of  using  Flier  Saw  Set. 

than  the  others  in  the  workshop,  but  being 
very  convenient  for  many  kinds  of  handi- 


Tools  of  Percussion  and  Impulsion. 

Hammers. — The  carpenter  and  joiner  has 
the  choice  between  two  or  three  shapes  of 


work.  The  hammer  heads  are  of  iron,  with 
steel  faces  and  penes.  Two  hammers, 
one  weighing  from  1  lb.  to  IJ  lbs.,  and  the 


HAND  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


19 


other  from  J  lb.  to  |  lb.,  will  be  found  use- 
ful, and  it  should  be  remembered  that  a 
heavy  hammer  applied  lightly  and  skil- 
fully leaves  fewer  marks  and  does  less 


Axes,  Hatchets,  and  Adzes. — These  are 
both  percussion  and  cutting  tools,  as  they 
combine  the  offices  of  the  hammer  and 
chisel.  Axes  have  long  handles,  and  may 
be  slung  as  sledge-hammers,  and  they 
have  heads  more  or  less  of  the  shape  shown 
by  Fig.  94,  which  illustrates  the  Kent  pat- 


Fig.  90. — Exeter  or  London  Hammer. 


Fig.  91.— Warrington  Hammer. 


damage  than  a  light  hammer  applied  with 
great  force. 

Mallets.— These  are  used  for  driving 
wood  chisels,  for  knocking  light  framing 
together,  and  in  cases  where  a  hammer 
would  probably  damage  both  tools  and 


Fig.  93. — English  Mallet. 

material.  An  English  beech  mallet  is  shown 
by  Fig.  93,  but  the  American  hickory  or 
lignum  vitse  pattern  is  perhaps  more  con- 
venient, it  having  all  the  sharp  edges  cham- 
fered ofi  and  the  handle  being  round  and 
easier  to  grasp.  In  some  American  mallets 
the  handle  screws  into  the  head. 


Fig.  92. — Adze-eye  Claw 
Hammer. 


tern,  many  other  patterns,  however,  being 
in  use.    Hatchets  have  short  handles,  and 


Fig.  94. — Kent  Axe 
Head. 


Fig.  95. — American 
Axe  Head. 


are  used  with  one  hand.  The  Kent  pat- 
tern already  illustrated  is  common,  as  is 


20 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


also  the  Canadian  or  American  pattern 
shown  by  Fig.  95.  The  adze  has  a  long, 
curved  handle,  and  the  operator  stands 
with  one  foot  upon  the  wood  in  the  line 
of  the  fibre,  and  thus  assists  in  steadying 
the  work.  The  variety  in  the  shape  of 
the  adze  heads  is  very  great,  but  it  is  suffi- 
cient here  to  show  the  Scotch  pattern 
(Fig.  96). 

Screwdrivers. — These  are  tools  of  impul- 
sion, and  at  least  two  or  three  will  be  re- 
quired— long  and  short,  and  with  wide  and 
narrow  blade.  For  general  work,  a  tool 
of  medium  length  should  be  obtained,  al- 
though there  are,  on  the  one  hand,  enthu- 
siastic advocates  of  a  short  tool,  and  on 
the  other  hand  of  a  long  tool  for  each 
and  every  purpose.  Any  advantage  gained 
by  a  short  over  a  long  tool,  or  the  reverse, 
is  one  of  advantage  in  special  circumstances 
only,  and  not  one  of  saved  energy  ;  theoretic- 


Fig.  96. — Scotch  Adze  Head. 


ally,  the  length  does  not  enter  into  con- 
sideration at  all,  except  when,  in  starting 
to  extract  a  difficult  screw,  the  driver  is 
tilted  from  the  upright;  but  this  is  at  the 
risk  of  a  broken  tool  edge  and  defaced 
screw-head.  The  worker  then  must  decide 
for  himself  as  to  which  sizes  will  best  suit 
his  purposes.  London  screwdrivers  have  a 
plain  handle  (Fig.  97)  or  oval  handle  ; 
cabinet  screwdrivers  are  lighter  tools,  and 
there  is,  indeed,  a  great  variety  of  patterns 
from  which  the  worker  can  choose  the 
tools  that  suit  him.  The  gimlet-handle 
screwdriver  has  certain  proved  advantages  ; 
and  the  brace  screwdriver — a  screwdriver 
bit  used  in  an  ordinary  brace — is  useful  for 
driving  good-sized  screws  easily  and  quickly. 
Short  screwdrivers  are  used  in  screwing  on 
drawer  locks,  there  being  a  much  heavier 
though  just  as  short  a  tool  used  for  screw- 
ing up  plane  irons.  Automatic  screw- 
drivers  (Fig.  98)  were    introduced  from 


America,  and  by  their  means  the  screw  is 
driven  home  merely  by  pressure  on  the 
top  of  the  handle. 

Boring  Tools. 

Bradawls. — These  have  round  stems  and 
chisel  edges  (Fig.  99)  ;  thus  the  edge  cuts 
the  fibres  of  the  wood  and  the  wedge-like 
form  of  the  tool  pushes  them  aside.  Its 
special  use  is  for  making  comparatively 


Fig.  97.— Plain  Handle     Fig.  98.— Miller's  Falls 
London  Screwdriver.       Automatic  Screwdriver. 

small  holes  in  soft  wood,  and  the  principal 
limitation  of  the  tool  is  that  there  is  no 
provision  for  the  waste  material. 

Gimlets. — These  are  made  in  many  forms, 
the  best  known  being  the  twist  (Fig.  100) 
and  the  shell  (Fig.  101),  lesser  known  shapes 
being  the  twist-nose  (Fig.  102)  and  the  auger 
(Fig.  103).  Gimlets  will  bore  end  grain  as 
well  as  across  the  fibres,  but  there  is  a  risk, 
in  boring  a  narrow  strip,  of  the  pointed  screw 
splitting  the  wood. 


HAND  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


21 


Brace  and  Bits. — There  are  various  kinds 
of  braces  on  the  market,  but  the  more 
generally  used  are  the  two  following  :  A 
wooden  brace  with  brass  mountings  is 
shown  at  Fig.  104.  It  is  better  to  buy  the 
bits  fitted  to  this  brace,  as  they  are  more 
truly  centred  than  those  bought  separate 
are  likely  to  be,  and  the  centering  of  the  bits 
is  essential  to  their  proper  action.  With 
the  American  pattern  brace  (Fig.  105)  this 
is  not  necessary,  as  by  turning  the  socket 


Fig.  101.— Shell  Gimlet. 


Fig.  102. — Twist-nose  Gimlet. 


Fig.  103. — Auger  Gimlet. 

the  jaws  are  expanded  or  contracted  so  as 
to  grip  the  shank  of  any  size  bit.  This 
kind  of  brace  may  be  had  with  a  ratchet 
movement,  which  is  very  useful  for  boring 
or  turning  screws  in  corner  positions  where 
a  complete  revolution  is  not  possible.  Bits 
are  known  in  very  numerous  forms. 
The  pin  bit  is  like  a  gouge  sharpened 
both  inside  and  outside ;  when  its 
corners  are  removed,  it  becomes  a  shell 
bit  suited  for  boring  at  right  angles 
to  the  fibre  of  the  wood.  The  spoon  bit 
resembles  the  shell  bit,  but  is  pointed  ;  it 
is  found  to  work  easily,  freely,  and  well. 
The  nose  bit  is  of  similar  shape,  but  its 
cutting  edge  is  a  part  of  the  steel  bent 
nearly  to  a  right-angle  and  sharpened  to 
form  a  kind  of  chisel ;  this  tool  is  efficient 
for  boring  the  end  way  of  the  grain,  but 
not  across  the  grain.  The  twist-nose  bit 
or  half-twist,  or  Norwegian  bit,  is  exactly 


of  the  shape  shown  for  the  twist-nose  gimlet 
by  Fig.  102  ;  it  screws  itself  into  the  wood, 
and  the  chips  tend  to  rise  out  of  the  hole, 
It  is  found  to  split  narrow  strips  of  wood, 
but  it  answers  well  for  all  other  purposes. 
All  the  above  bits  can  be  obtained  in  a 
great  variety  of  sizes ;  but  exact  size  is 
not  guaranteed  by  the  dealers,  and  the  best 
plan  is  to  bore  a  hole  and  measure,  rather 


Fig.  104. — Wooden 
Brace. 


Fig.  105.— Steel 
Brace. 


than  measure  the  bit.  Holes  are  enlarged 
by  means  of  a  hollow  taper  bit.  Patent 
twist  bits  (Fig.  106)  having  a  screw  centre 
are  known  as  screw  bits,  and  these  bore 
well  in  any  wood  and  in  any  direction, 
relieving  themselves  of  the  chips  and  cutting 

Fig.  106. — Gedge's  Twist  Screw  Bit. 

true  to  dimensions.  Centre  bits  are  per- 
haps the  most  commonly  used  bits  (see  Figs. 
107  and  108)  ;  they  are  useful  for  boring 
large  holes,  and  are  much  superior  to  shell 
type  bits  in  the  important  point  of  boring 
exactly  where  the  hole  is  required.  Ex- 
panding centre  bits  (Fig.  109)  are  known. 


22 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


and  are  a  great  convenience  if  of  good 
quality.  The  Forstner  auger  bit  (Fig.  110) 
is  guided  by  its  periphery  instead  of  its 
centre,  and  consequently  it  will  bore  any 
arc  of  a  circle,  and  can  be  guided  in  any 


edge  of  the  spiral  is  a  nicker  which  cuts  the 
grain  of  the  wood  around  the  edge  of  the 
hollow. 


Fig.  107.— Centre  Bit 
with  Pin. 


Fig.  108.— Centre  Bit 
with  Screw. 


Fig.  112. — Handled  Steel  Scraper. 

Abrading  and  Scraping  Tools. 

Steel  Scrapers. — The  scraper  is  a  thin  and 
very  hard  steel  plate,  approximately  5  in. 
by  3  in.,  with  or  without  a  handle  (see 
Fig.  112).  Its  action  is  really  that  of  a 
cutting  tool.    It  is  used  on  a  surface  pre- 


Fig.  110. — Forstner  Auger  Bit. 


Fig.  111. — Auger. 

direction  regardless  of  grain  or  knots,  leav- 
ing a  true,  polished,  cylindrical  hollow. 

Augers. — The  auger  (Fig.  Ill)  bores  well 
in  the  direction  of  the  grain  of  the  wood,  and 
is  complete  in  itself.  It  is  a  steel  rod, 
having  a  round  eye  at  one  end,  through 
which  a  round  wooden  handle  passes.  At 
the  other  end  is  a  spiral  twist  terminating  in 
a  conical  screw  with  a  sharp  point.  The 


Fig.  113. — Action  of  Steel  Scraper. 

viously  made  as  smooth  and  level  as  the 
plane  can  make  it.  The  scraper  is  so 
sharpened  that  a  burr  or  feather  is  formed 
along  its  edges  (see  the  diagram,  Fig.  113). 
The  thickness  of  the  scraper  blade,  which 
is  about  -gV  in.,  is  shown  exaggerated. 
The  edge  is  filed  straight  and  flat,  it  is 
then  rubbed  along  the  oilstone  to  remove 
file  marks,  and  finally  the  edge  is  turned 
and  sharpened  by  two  heavy  rubs  with 
a  round  steel  burnisher  held  at  an  angle  of 
about  30°  with  the  plate. 

Glasspaper. — This  is  the  chief  abrading 
material  used  in  woodworking,  and  consists 


HAND  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


23 


of  strong  paper  coated  with  powdered  glass 
secured  to  the  paper  with  glue.    The  dif- 


Fig.  114. — Glasspaper  Rubber. 

ferent  grades  of  glasspaper  are  numbered 
from  3  to  0,  and  even  finer.    For  properly 


Washita,  and  Arkansas.  The  Charnley 
Forest  is  of  a  greenish-slate  colour,  and 
sometimes  has  small  red  or  brown  spots — 
the  lighter  the  colour  the  better  ;  it  may 
take  a  little  more  rubbing  than  other  stones 
to  get  an  edge  on  the  tool,  but  that  edge 
will  be  keen  and  fine.  Some  Turkey  oil- 
stones are  of  a  dark  slate  colour  when  oiled, 
with  white  veining  and  sometimes  white 
spots  ;  they  give  a  keen  edge,  but  wear  un- 
evenly, and  also  are  very  brittle  ;  they  are 


Fig.  115. — Half-round  Wood  Rasp. 


Fig.  116.— Half-round  Wood  File. 


using  glasspaper  a  rubber  (Fig.  114)  is  re- 
quired, this  being  a  shaped  wooden  block 
faced  with  cork.  In  use  the  glasspaper  is 
folded  round  it.  Glasspaper  has  entirely 
replaced  the  old-fashioned  sandpaper,  which 
was  a  similar  material,  except  that  fine, 
sharp  sand  was  used  instead  of  powdered 
glass. 

Rasps  and  Files. — Woodworkers'  rasps 
are  generally  half-round,  though  sometimes 
flat.  The  wood  rasp  (Fig.  115)  is  coarser 
than  the  cabinet  rasp.  The  ordinary  half- 
round  wood  file  (bastard  cut)  is  shown  at 
Fig.  116.  Both  range  from  4  in.  to  14  in. 
in  length.  The  usual  files  used  for  keeping 
saws  in  order  chiefly  are  known  as  triangu- 
lar taper  (Fig.  85),  and  have  already  been 
alluded  to. 

Grindstones. — The  grindstone  (Fig.  117), 
many  varieties  of  which  are  obtainable,  is 
an  appHance  for  removing  a  superfluous 
thickness  of  metal,  not  for  producing  a  good 
edge.  It  should  be  of  a  light  grey  colour, 
even  throughout. 

Oilstones. — On  an  oilstone  the  joiner 
sharpens  his  tools,  which  have  been  pre- 
viously ground  to  shape  on  the  grindstone. 
The  oilstones  in  most  general  use  are  four 
in  number — the  Charnley  .Forest,  Turkey, 


notoriously  slow -cutting,  and  are  expensive. 
The  cheapest  oilstone  at  first  cost  is  the  Nova 


Fig.  117. — Treadle  Grindstone  on  Iron  Stand. 


24 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Scotia,  or  Canada  stone,  which  is  brownish 
yellow  in  colour  when  new,  changing  to  a 
yellowish  grey  by  use,  and  wearing  away 
rather  quickly.  The  Washita  stone  cuts 
more  quickly  than  a  Turkey  stone,  and 
also  more  regularly.  Some  kinds  are  of  a 
whitish  grey  or  light  buff  colour  when  oiled. 
The  Arkansas  stone  is  compact  and  white, 
and  finer  in  grain  than  the  Washita.  It 
wears  well  and  cuts  slowly,  producing  fine 
edges.  Oilstones  generally  are  about  8  in. 
long,  2  in.  wide,  and  1  in.  thick,  a  very 
convenient  width  being  IJ  in.  A  small  oil- 
stone of  4  in.  by  IJ  in.  is  useful  for  sharpen- 
ing spokeshaves,   and  pieces  or  slips  of 


which  is  sprinkled  a  little  flour  emery  and 
oil,  this  working  more  quickly  than  a 
proper  stone,  but  not  giving  so  finished  an 


Fig.  118. — Oilstone  in  Plain  Case. 

stone  of  various  sizes  and  shapes  are  re- 
quired for  gouges,  router  cutters,  etc.  It 
is  usual  to  keep  an  oilstone  in  a  box  or  case 
(Fig.  118).  Neat's-foot  oil  or  sperm  oil 
commonly  is  considered  best  for  oilstone 
use  ;  lard  oil  containing  sufficient  paraffin 
to  prevent  it  going  thick  in  cold  weather 
is  also  recommended.  Many  other  oils  are 
used  for  the  purpose,  but  all  tend  to  harden 
the  surface  of  the  stone  much  more  quickly 
than  neat's-foot  or  sperm.  The  oil  can 
be  kept  in  a  bench  oil-can,  which  will  come 
in  generally  useful. 

Emery  Oilstones  and  Oilstone  Substitutes. 
— Emery  oilstones  are  an  American  intro- 
duction, and  are  made  of  Turkish  emery, 
one  face  being  of  fine  and  the  other  of 
medium  coarse  material.  They  have  the 
advantage  over  any  natural  oilstone  of  being 
uniform  in  texture,  and  of  not  being  brittle. 
Oilstone  substitutes  are  strips  of  zinc  upon 


Nails,  Screws,  and  Glue. 

Nails. — Nails  may  be  of  iron,  steel,  etc.. 
wrought,  cast,  cut,  or  made  of  wire.  For- 
merly nails  were  said  to  be  6-lb.,  8-lb.,  etc., 
according  as  1,000  of  the  variety  weighed 
that  amount — hence  now  such  meaningless 
terms  as  sixpenny,  eightpenny,  and  ten- 
penny  nails,  in  which  "  penny  "  is  a  corrup- 
tion of  "  pound."  Of  the  nails  commonly 
used  in  carpentry  and  joinery,  the  cut  clasp 
nail,  machine-made  from  sheet  "  iron " 
(probably  steel),  may  be  used  for  almost  any 
purpose,  and  is  not  liable  to  split  the  work. 
Rose-head  nails  have  a  shank  parallel  in 
width,  but  tapered  to  a  chisel  point  in 
thickness ;  these  are  made  of  tough 
wrought  iron,  i*and  are  used  chiefly  for 
field-gates  and  fencing.  Wrought  clasp 
nails  resemble  the  cut  clasp,  but  have 
sharper  points,  and  are  used  chiefly  in 
common  ledged  doors,  as  they  will  readily 
clinch.  Oval  steel  nails  are  nicely  shaped, 
very  tough,  and  are  less  likely  to  split  the 
material  than  any  other  kind  of  nail ; 
slight  shallow  grooves  in  the  shank  increase 
the  holding  power.  Brads  are  known  in 
more  than  one  variety.  The  cut-steel  large 
brad  is  used  in  flooring,  and  does  not  make 
such  a  large  hole  as  a  cut  nail.  The  cut- 
steel  small  brad  is  used  for  general  pur- 
poses. French  nails  are  of  round  wire, 
pointed,  and  have  round,  flat  heads  ;  they 
are  strong,  but  their  unsightly  heads  cause 
their  use  to  be  confined  to  rough  work. 


Fig.  119. — Square  Nail  Set  or  Punch. 


for 


The  double-pointed  nail  is  intended 
dowelling  and  other  purposes. 

Nail  Sets  or  Punches. — For  punching  nail 
heads  below  the  surface  of  the  work  a  steel 
set  (Fig.  119)  of  square  or  round  section  is 
used. 

Screws. — The  screw  nail  commonly  used 
for  uniting  woodwork  is  known  as  the  wood 


HAND  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES. 


25 


screw,  and,  although  it  has  been  in  use  a 
long  time,  the  present  pointed  screw  was 
not  made  prior  to  the  year  1841.  The 
screw  replaces  nails  in  all  fixing  where  the 
hammer  cannot  conveniently  be  used  or 
where  jarring  must  be  avoided.    The  screw 


Fig.  120.— Flat  Head  Wood  Screw. 


Fig.  121. — Round  Head  Wood  Screw. 


Fig.  122. — Cup  Wood  Screw. 

possesses  ten  times  the  compression  and 
attractive  strength  of  ordinary  nails,  and, 
besides,  is  convenient  for  use  in  putting 
work  together  which  is  soon  to  be  taken 
down.  Screws  are  made  in  almost  endless 
variety,  but  the  best  known  three  are : 
flat-head  screw  (Fig.  120),  made  of  iron, 
steel,  or  brass  ;  round-head  screw  (Fig.  121), 
which  is  generally  japanned  and  used  for 
fixing  bolts,  locks,  etc.  ;  cup  screw  (Fig.  122), 
the  head  of  which  fits  into  a  cup  (as  illus- 
trated) which  is  let  into  the  work  flush 
with  the  surface. 

Glue,  Glue-pots,  and  Glue-brushes. — Glue, 
size,  and  gelatine  are  varieties  of  the  same 
substance,  differing  only  in  the  quantity 
of  moisture  and  of  impurities  which  they 
contain.  Gelatine-yielding  substances  em- 
ployed in  glue  manufacture  include  skins 
of  all  animals,  tendons,  intestines,  bladders, 
bones,  hoofs,  and  horns.  Glue  is  manu- 
factured by  boiling  the  animal  matter  and 
straining  the  product  into  coolers,  where  it 
thickens  into  a  jelly,  which  is  cut  into  sheets 
and  dried  in  the  open  air  on  frames  of  wire 
netting.  Glue  should  be  of  a  bright  brown 
or  amber  colour,  free  from  specks  or  blotches, 

2 


nearly  transparent,  and  with  but  Httle  taste 
or  smell.  It  should  be  hard  and  moderately 
brittle,  not  readily  affected  by  moisture 
in  the  atmosphere,  and  should  break  sharply, 
but  if  it  shivers  as  easily  as  a  piece  of  glass 
it  is  much  too  brittle,  though  at  the  same 
time  it  must  not  be  tough  and  leathery. 
Koughly  speaking,  a  glue  which  will  a,h- 
sorb  more  water  than  another  is  prefer- 
able. Good  glue  does  not  give  off  an  un- 
pleasant smell  after  being  prepared  a  few 
days.  In  the  workshop,  different  kinds  of 
glue-pots  are  used,  according  to  the  quan- 
tity required.  The  usual  glue-pot  has  an 
outer  and  an  inner  vessel  and  is  shown  in 
section  at  Fig.  123.  When  glue  is  used 
in  large  quantities,  and  steam  pipes  are 
laid  on  for  heating  purposes,  the  glue  is 
kept  hot  on  a  water  bath  heated  by  steam 
pip^.  The  joiner  prepares  glue  by  break- 
ing it  into  small   pieces,  soaking  these 


\\\ 

i 

it 

mwv:  I'll 

Fig.  123. — Section  through  a  Glue-pot. 

in  clean,  cold  water  for  several  hours,  and 
then  boiling  the  resulting  lumps  of  jelly — 
the  superfluous  water  having  been  poured 
off — in  a  double-vessel  glue-pot  for  an 
hour  or  two,  or  until  the  glue  runs  easily 
from  the  brush  without  breaking  into  drops. 
A  glue-brush  can  be  bought  for  a  few 
pence,  and  its  bristles  should  be  compara- 
tively short.  A  cane  brush  is  preferred 
by  many  workers,  this  being  made  with 
a  piece  of  rattan  cane  about  8  in.  long,  the 
flinty  skin  for  an  inch  or  so  at  one  end 
being  cut  away,  the  end  soaked  in  boiling 
water  for  a  minute  or  two,  and  then  ham- 
mered till  the  fibres  are  loosened  ;  this  brush 
lasts  as  long  as  there  is  any  cane  left  from 
which  to  hammer  out  a  fresh  end. 

Other  Tools  and  Appliances. — Many  other 
tools  and  appUances  not  in  such  general 
use  will  be  illustrated  and  described  in  con- 
nection with  the  matter  treated  in  some 
of  the  other  sections  (see  index). 


TIMBER. 


Growth  of  Timber  Trees. 

Structure  of  Tree  Trunk. — Trees  which 
produce  timber  are  known  botanically  as 
exogens,  or  outward  growers,  because  the 
new  wood  is  added  underneath  the  bark 
outside  that  already  formed.  The  whole 
section  (Fig.  124)  consists  of  (a)  pith  in  the 
centre,  which  dries  up  and  disappears  as 
the  tree  matures  ;  (6)  woody  fibre  or  long 


Fig.  124.— Cross  Section  of  Stem  of 
Timber  Tree. 

tapering  bundles  of  vascular  tissue  forming 
the  duramen  or  heartwood,  arranged  in 
rings,  each  of  which  is  considered  to  repre- 
sent a  year's  growth,  and  interspersed  with 

(c)  medullary  rays  or  transverse  septa  con- 
sisting of  fiat,  hard  plates  of  cellular  tissue 
known  to  carpenters  as  "  silver-grain,"  or 
"  felt,"  or  "  flower,"  and  showing  most 
strongly  in  oak  and  beech  :  the  heartwood 
is  comparatively  dry  and  hard,  from  the 
compression  produced  by  the  newer  layers  ; 

(d)  alburnum,  or  sapwood,  which  is  the  im- 
mature woody  fibre  recently  deposited.  In 
coniferous  trees  the  sapwood  is  only  dis- 
tinguishable by  a  sUght  greenish  tinge  when 
dry,  but  when  wet  it  holds  the  moisture 
much  longer  than  the  heartwood,  and  can 
often  be  detected  in  that  way  ;  (e)  the  bark, 
which  is  a  protecting  coat  on  the  outside 


of  the  tender  sapwood  ;   it  receives  addi- 
tions on  the  inside  during  the  autumn,  which 
cause  it  to  crack  and  become  very  irregular 
in  old  trees.    The  mode  of  growth  is  as 
follows  :  In  the  spring  moisture  from  the 
earth  is  absorbed  by  the  roots,  and  rises 
through  the  stem  as  sap  to  form  the  leaves.  ■ 
The  leaves  give  off  moisture  and  absorb 
carbon  (in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas),  j 
which  thickens  the  sap.    In  the  autumn  ! 
the  sap  descends  inside  the  bark  and  adds 
a  new  layer  of  wood  to  the  tree.  The 
actual  growth  is  less  regular  than  appears 
in  Fig.  124,  and  more  resembles  Fig.  125. 

Formation  of  Wood. — Fig.  125  further 
illustrates  the  manner  in  which  the  stem 
of  a  timber  tree  grows  by  the  deposit  of 
successive  layers  of  wood  on  the  outside 
under  the  bark,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
bark  becomes  thicker  by  the  deposit  of 
layers  on  its  under  side.  Upon  examining 
the  cross  section  of  an  oak  log  as  Fig.  125, 
it  is  found  that  the  wood  is  made  up  of  , 
several  concentric  layers  or  rings,  each 
ring  consisting  in  general  of  two  parts,  the 
outer  part  being  usually  darker  in  colour, 
denser,  and  more  solid  than  the  inner  part, 
the  difference  between  the  parts  varying  in 
different  kinds  of  trees.  These  layers  are 
called  annual  rings,  because  one  of  them  is, 
as  a  rule,  deposited  every  year  in  a  manner 
which  will  be  presently  explained.  In  the 
centre  of  the  first  layer  is  a  column  of  pith, 
from  which  planes,  seen  in  section  as  thin 
lines  (in  many  woods  not  discernible), 
radiate  towards  the  bark,  and  in  some  cases 
similar  lines  from  the  bark  converge  towards 
the  centre,  but  do  not  reach  the  pith  (see 
Figs.  125  and  126).  These  radiating  lines 
are  known  as  medullary  rays  or  transverse 
septa.  When  they  are  of  large  size  and 
strongly  marked,  as  in  some  kinds  of  oak, 


TIMBER. 


27 


they  present  the  beautiful  figured  appear- 
ance called  silver-grain  or  felt,  as  illustrated 
by  the  longitudinal  section  (Fig.  126).  To 
produce  this  effect,  the  timber  must  be 
sawn  in  the  radial  planes  of  the  medullary 
rays,  or  slightly  oblique  to  them.  As  already 
mentioned,  the  wood  is  com- 
posed of  bundles  of  cellular 
tubes,  which  serve  to  convey 


medullary  rays,  the  sapwood  being  on  the 
outside  and  the  remainder  heartwood. 
F,  Fig.  126,  shows  the  longitudinal  section 


the  required  nourishment  from  the  earth 
to  the  leaves.  Fig.  125  shows  the  cross 
section  with   the   annual  rings  and  the 


Fig.  126. — Log  with  Central  Board  cut 
so  as  to  show  the  Figure  formed  by 
the  Medullary  Rays.  The  Effect  of 
Shrinkage  after  cutting  the  Log  into 
Boards  or  Quarters. 


through  the  centre  of  the  tree  where  the 
flower  or  silver-grain  (that  is,  the  medullary 
rays  in  elevation)  is  marked,  together  with 
the  edges  of  the  annual  rings,  a,  Fig.  125, 
shows  a  longitudinal  section  nearer  to  the 
bark,  where  the  graining  is  formed  by  the 


28 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


section  of  the  annual  rings,  owing  to  the 
straight  cut  through  the  bent  tree.  The 
medullary  rays  are  seen  edgeways  as  fine 
lines  in  this  section,  whilst  the  annual  layers 
form  beautiful  wavy  and  hearty  grain.  A 
plank  cut  so  as  to  contain  part  of  the  centre 
pith  of  the  tree  as  shown  at  f,  in  Fig.  126, 
would  be  least  afiected  in  breadth  by 
shrinking. 

Difference  Between  Exogenous  and  Endo- 
genous Timber. — Exogens  and  endogens  are 
very  different  in  internal  structure  and  in 
outward  appearance.  The  exogens,  as  has 
been  explained,  increase  in  size  by  the  addi- 
tion of  new  material  at  the  outside  of  the 
stem — just  under  the  bark.  They  continue 
to  increase  in  diameter  as  well  as  in  height 
throughout  their  whole  lifetime.  This 
growth  may  be  carried  on  continuously, 
as  in  the  cactuses,  or  intermittently,  by 
abrupt  periodical  advances  and  cessations, 
as  in  the  forest  trees.  The  hardest  portion 
of  the  stem  is  towards  the  centre.  The 
fibro-vascular  bundles  are  "  open  " — that 
is,  capable  of  further  development.  There 
is  a  distinct  and  separable  bark,  and  usually 
a  number  of  branches.  The  trunk  and 
\)ranches  are  frequently  crooked.  The  leaves 
are  articulated,  and  drop  off  neat  or  clean 
from  the  tree.  The  veins  in  the  leaves 
ramify,  forming  an  irregular  network.  The 
flowers,  when  present,  have,  as  a  rule,  four 
or  five  sepals  and  petals,  etc.,  or  multiples 
of  these.  The  seeds  (except  in  conifers) 
split  in  two.  The  oak,  apple,  laburnum, 
and  the  wallflower  are  examples  of  exogens. 
Some  exogens  live  to  be  more  than  a 
thousand  years  old.  Endogens  mainly  in- 
crease in  size  by  end  growth.  There  is 
lateral  distension  for  a  time,  but  this  soon 
ceases,  and  then  the  tree  remains  of  nearly 
uniform  diameter  throughout  its  life.  There 
are  no  annual  rings — the  growth  being 
mostly  continuous.  The  hardest  portion  of 
the  stem  is  at  the  outside,  where  a  false 
rind  made  up  of  broken  leaf-ends,  etc.,  is 
formed,  but  no  bark.  The  fibro-vascular 
bundles  become  "  limited,"  or  "  closed," 
after  a  certain  period,  after  which  they  serve 
Dnly  to  strengthen  the  stem.  The  trunk 
is  straight,  or  nearly  so,  and  seldom  has  any 
branches.  If  it  does  have  any  branches, 
as  in  bamboo,  then  these  are  straight  too. 


At  the  top  end,  where  the  growing  is  taking 
place,  the  new  leaves  arise  inside  the  old 
ones,  and  press  them  outwards  and  down- 
wards as  they  grow.  The  old  leaves  even- 
tually die,  and  hang  like  a  ragged  sheath 
around  the  stem.  The  leaves  are  parallel- 
veined.  The  flowers  are  mostly  on  the 
plan  of  three.  The  seed  is  entire  :  hence 
Monocotyledons.  Few  endogens  live  to  be 
300  years  old.  Nearly  all  the  principal 
kinds  belong  to  tropical  or  sub-tropical 
climates — examples  are  the  palms,  bamboos, 
grasses,  and  lihes.  There  are  no  endogenous 
trees  indigenous  to  England,  and  it  is 
believed  that  the  only  British  endogenous 
shrub  is  the  butcher's  broom — Ruscus 
aculeatum. 

Function  of  Sap. — The  action  of  the  sap 
may  now  be  described  in  fuller  detail.  In 
the  spring  the  roots  absorb  from  the  soil 
moisture,  which,  converted  into  sap,  ascends 
through  the  cellular  tubes  to  form  the 
leaves.  At  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves 
the  sap  gives  off  moisture,  absorbs  carbon 
from  the  air,  and  becomes  denser ;  after 
the  leaves  are  full-grown,  vegetation  is  sus- 
pended until  the  autumn,  when  the  sap  in 
its  altered  state  descends,  by  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves,  chiefly  between  the  wood 
and  the  bark,  where  it  deposits  a  layer  of 
new  wood  (the  annual  ring  for  that  year), 
a  portion  at  the  same  time  being  absorbed 
by  the  bark.  During  this  time  the  leaves 
drop  off,  the  flow  of  sap  then  almost  stops, 
and  vegetation  is  at  a  standstill  for  the 
winter.  With  the  next  spring  the  operation 
recommences,  so  that  after  a  year  a  distinct 
layer  of  wood  is  added  to  the  tree.  The 
above  description  refers  to  temperate  cli- 
mates, in  which  the  circulation  of  sap  stops 
during  the  winter ;  in  tropical  climates 
it  stops  during  the  dry  season.  Thus,  as 
a  rule,  the  age  of  the  tree  can  be  ascer- 
tained from  the  number  of  annual  rings  ; 
but  this  is  not  always  the  case.  Some- 
times a  recurrence  of  exceptionally  warm  or 
moist  weather  will  produce  a  second  ring 
in  the  same  year. 

Heartwood  and  Sapwood. — A  young  tree 
is  almost  all  sapwood,  but  as  it  matures 
this  is  gradually  changed  into  heartwood 
more  rapidly  than  sapwood  is  added,  and  as 
the  tree  increases  in  age,  the  inner  layers  are 


TIMBER. 


29 


filled  up  and  hardened,  becoming  duramen  or 
heartwood,  the  remainder  being  alburnum 
or  sapwood.  The  sapwood  is  softer  and 
lighter  in  colour  than  the  heartwood,  and 
can  generally  be  easily  distinguished  from 
it.  In  addition  to  the  strengthening  of  the 
wood  caused  by  the  drying  up  of  the  sap, 
and  consequent  hardening  of  the  rings,  there 
is  another  means  by  which  it  is  strengthened 
— that  is,  by  the  compressive  action  of  the 
bark.  Each  layer,  as  it  solidifies,  expands, 
exerting  a  force  on  the  bark,  which  eventu- 
ally yields,  but  in  the  meantime  offers  a 
slight  resistance,  compressing  the  tree 
throughout  its  bulk.  The  sapwood  is 
generally  distinctly  bounded  by  one  of  the 


this  makes  it  drier,  lighter,  and  more  resilient 
or  springy.  It  is  less  liable  to  twist,  warp, 
or  split.  The  advantages  of  using  seasoned 
timber  are  that  it  works  more  easily  under 
the  saw  and  plane,  and  retains  its  size  and 
shape  after  it  leaves  the  hands  of  the  car- 
penter or  joiner.  Unseasoned  stuff  warps 
and  shrinks,  and,  besides  being  unsightly,  is 
liable  to  cause  failures  in  structures  of  which 
it  may  form  a  part ;  it  is  also  very  liable  to 
decay  from  putrefaction  of  its  sap. 

Natural  Processes  of  Seasoning  Timber. — 
Timber  produced  from  a  newly  felled  tree 
is  full  of  moisture,  and  this  must  be  ex- 
tracted by  drying  or  seasoning.  Timber 
cut  down  in  the  autumn,  after  the  sap  has 


Fig.  127. — Hardwood  Stacked  foi  Seasoning. 


annual  rings,  and  can  thus  be  sometimes 
distinguished  from  stains  of  a  similar  colour, 
which  are  caused  by  dirty  water  soaking 
into  the  timber  while  it  is  lying  in  the  ponds. 
These  stains  do  not  generally  stop  abruptly 
upon  a  ring,  but  penetrate  to  different 
depths,  colouring  portions  of  the  various 
rings.  The  heartwood  is  stronger  and  more 
lasting  than  the  sapwood,  and  should 
alone  be  used  in  good  work.  The  annual 
rings  are  generally  thicker  on  the  side  of 
the  tree  that  has  had  most  sun  and  air,  and 
the  heart  is,  therefore,  seldom  in  the  centre. 

Seasoning  Timber. 

Advantages  of  Seasoned  Timber. — Seasoned 
timber  differs  from  unseasoned  principally 
in  having  the  sap  and  moisture  removed  ; 


formed  the  new  layers  of  wood,  is  best 
seasoned  by  cutting  it  into  planks  and  stack- 
ing them  horizontally  in  open  order  under 
cover,  exposed  to  a  free  current  of  air,  and 
protected  from  ground  moisture.  Hard 
woods  are  generally  stacked  with  thin  strips 
between  them,  placed  transversely  every 
2  ft.  or  so  (Fig.  127),  and  soft  woods  by 
laying  them  on  edge  with  spaces  between^ 
the  direction  being  crossed  in  adjacent 
courses.  The  time  occupied  is,  say,  two  years. 
Balk  timber  is  best  seasoned  by  putting  it 
under  water  in  a  running  stream  for  a  few 
weeks,  then  stacking  it  loosely  with  some 
protection  from  sun  and  rain.  These  are 
termed  natural  processes.  For  protecting 
the  stacked  timber  from  the  action  of  the 
sun  and  high  winds,  a  shed  with  open  ends, 


30 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


or  with  louvred  sides — that  is,  with  sides 
after  the  fashion  of  Venetian  Winds — proves 
satisfactory.  In  stacking  timber  horizon- 
tally, it  should  be  laid  perfectly  flat  and  level 
in  breadth  and  straight  in  length.  The  usual 
plan  is  to  lay  "  sleepers  "  or  cross-bearers 
on  the  ground,  and  then  stack  upon  these. 
The  ground  on  which  the  timber  is  to  be 
seasoned  should  be  properly  drained  so  as  to 
carry  off  driving  rain.  It  should  also  be 
protected  from  vegetable  growth  ;  therefore 


by  1  in.  between  each  layer,  about  2  ft. 
or  4  ft.  apart  (Fig.  127),  or  arranged  in 
some  similar  manner,  the  object  to  be  kept 
in  view  being  to  allowjfree  circulation  of  air 
round  nearly  the  whole  of  each  piece,  gradu- 
ally carrying  ofi  a  greater  part  of  the  sap 
and  moisture  from  the  timber.  To  prevent 
planks  and  boards  splitting  from  the  ends 
up  the  centre,  they  are  clamped  by  nailing 
strips  of  wood  to  the  ends  as  indicated  at  a 
(Fig.  127).  Timber  seasoned  as  above js  said 


Fig.  128.— Single  "Sturtevant"  Apartment  Drying  Kiln,  Section. 


it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  ground  covered 
with  asphalted  paving,  or  with  a  layer  of 
smith's  or  furnace  ashes  to  prevent  veget- 
able growth  contaminating  the  stacked 
timber  and  bringing  about  wet  rot,  or  in 
some  cases  from  becoming  the  source  of  the 
development  of  dry  rot  after  the  timber  has 
been  inserted  in  a  building.  The  lowest 
layer  of  timber  should  rest  upon  bearers 
which  should  be  arranged  all  in  one  plane 
—that  is,  out  of  winding,  otherwise  the 
timber  stacked  upon  them  would  become 
permanently  twisted.  This  is  very  impor- 
tant. The  timber  should  be  stacked  in 
layers,  with  a  space  between  each  piece  in 
the  same  row,  and  strips  of  wood  about  }  in. 


to  retain  properties  that  render  it  stronger, 
heavier,  more  elastic  and  flexible,  and  much 
more  durable  than  timber  seasoned  by 
artificial  processes. 

Artificially  Seasoning  Timber. — There  are 
various  artificial  processes  of  seasoning  in 
use  which  expedite  the  work  and  shorten 
the  time  necessary  between  felling  and 
using,  but  the  strength  and  toughness  of 
the  timber  are  reduced.  The  methods  are 
— desiccating,  or  using  hot-air  chambers, 
smoking,  steaming,  and  boiling.  To  reduce 
the  risk  of  splitting  the  ends  in  the  drying 
process,  they  are  clamped — that  is,  thin 
pieces  are  nailed  over  the  end  grain  so  that 
the  ends  may  dry  uniformly  with  the  other 


TIMBER. 


31 


parts.  McNeile's  process  is  said  to  be  very- 
good  :  the  wood  to  be  seasoned  is  exposed 
to  a  moderate  heat  in  a  moist  atmosphere 
charged  with  the  products  of  combustion, 
say  COo,  which  is  supposed  to  convert  the 
sap  to  woody  fibre  and  drive  out  the  mois- 
ture.    Smoke-drying  over  an  open  wood 


Modern  Method  of  Artificially 
Seasoning  Timber. 

Nature  seasoning  takes  so  long  that  it 
keeps  idle  a  vast  amount  of  capital.  By 
artificial  means  timber  can  be  dried  in  fewer 
days  than  it  takes  months  by  the  natural 


Fig.  129. — Four-chamber  "Sturtevant"  Drying  Kiln,  Section. 


fire  drives  out  the  sap  and  moisture  and 
renders  the  wood  more  durable  and  less 
liable  to  attack  by  worms.  Burying  logs  in 
sand  is  a  method  of  artificial  seasoning. 
The  disadvantage  of  artificial  seasoning  is 
that  the  method  of  drying  is  too  rapid, 
and  seems  to  take  away  the  stability  of  the 
materia],  leaving  it  less  firm,  more  brittle, 
and  duller  in  appearance. 


process,  consequently  improvements  in  the 
methods  of  seasoning  are  constantly  being 
sought  for.  A  large  quantity  of  deals, 
battens,  planks,  etc.,  receive  a  first  season- 
ing before  being  placed  on  the  market. 
The  most  effective  artificial  methods  of 
seasoning  are  probably  of  American  origin. 
The  following  two  systems  are  largely  in 
use. 


32 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


The  "Sturtevant"  System  of  Drying 
Timber. 

Rapid  and  efficient  drying  is  effected 
by  subjecting  the  timber  to  a  continual 
passage  of  warm  dry  air  in  a  kiln  con- 
structed of  wood  or  brick  into  which  hot 
air  is  introduced  by  a  fan.  Fig.  128  shows 
a  sectional  view.  The 
air  is  first  heated  by 
a  Sturtevant  heater 
E  to  the  desired 
temperature  by  either 


ve  or  exhaust 


within  the  kiln,  and  thus"  prevents  the 
exterior  of  the  stack  drying  too  quickly 
and  becoming  simply  skin  dried.  Per- 
fectly green  coniferous  timber  one  inch 
thick  can  be  dried  within  six  days,  other 
thicknesses  in  proportion.  It  is  claimed 
that  by  this  process  the  outside  of  the  wood 
is  kept  open,  which  allows  the  moisture 
from  the  heart  to  escape  without 
splitting,  warping,  or  discolouring 
taking  place.  Fig.  129  is  a  sectional 
view  of  a  large  kiln  having  four 
compartments.  Timber  is  erected  in 
stacks,  on  trucks  running  on  rails, 


Fig.  130. — Erith's  Patent  Automatic  Drying  Kiln,  General  View. 


steam,  which  ensures  that  the  tempera- 
ture never  exceeds  212°  F.  Then,  by 
means  of  the  fan  f,  it  is  forced  through  the 
outlets  of  the  supply  duct  b  into  the  kiln, 
circulating  completely  round  the  timber. 
Owing  to  the  high  temperature  of  the  air 
it  rapidly  absorbs  moisture  and  is  then 
passed  into  the  atmosphere,  or  it  may  be 
returned  to  the  apparatus  to  be  reheated 
and  the  absorbing  process  repeated.  The 
return  ducts  a  and  c  serve  a  double  purpose 
by  utilising  the  remaining  air  which  comes 
gradually  laden  with  moisture  ;  the  pro- 
cess of  reheating  serves,  by  regulation, 
to  maintain  any  desired  degree  of  humidity 


and  is  thus  easily  conveyed  in  and  out 
of  the  kiln. 

Erith^s  Patent  Automatic  Timber 
Drier. 

These  kilns  may  be  of  wood  or  brick. 
For  carrying  out  this  system  of  drying 
timber  one  form  of  kiln  is  shown  at  Fig. 
130.  The  timber  is  conveyed  into  the 
kiln  by  being  stacked  upon  trucks  running 
on  rails,  and  as  the  timber  is  dried,  it  is 
passed  out  at  the  opposite  end.  A  canvas 
roller  door  is  provided  at  each  end  which 
works  on  the  roller-blind  principle,  but  fitting 
almost  air-tight.    This  system  dries  wood 


TIMBER. 


33 


by  the  circulation  of  warm  but  very  moist  air. 
Its  operation  is  automatic,  no  machinery 
or  power  being  required.  The  apparatus 
consists  of  specially  arranged  steam  radiator 
coils,  in  which  exhaust  or  live  steam  may 
be  used ;  they  are  placed  beneath  the  rails 
near  the  discharging  end  of  the  building. 
Air  flows  under  the  radiator  coils,  and  rises, 
at  the  same  time  travelling  through'  the 
stacks  of  wood,   thus  gradually  drawing 


Artificially  Seasoning-  Timber  Small 
Stuff. 

s  A  method  sometimes  adopted  for  seasoning 
small  pieces  of  timber,  especially  for  tool 
making,  and  other  purposes,  is  possible  wher- 
ever a  supply  of  steam — from  the  boiler  or 
exhaust  of  a  steam  engine — is  available. 
The  pieces  of  wood  are  stacked  in  a 
steam  chest  (see  Fig.  131)  or  a  barrel  (Fig. 
132)  and  allowed  to  become  thoroughly 


Fig.  131. — Steam  Chest  for  Small  Pieces  of  Timber. 


moisture  from  it.  As  the  air  becomes 
more  laden  with  moisture  it  sinks  between 
the  rails  and  flows  towards  the  loading  end, 
where  it  is  allowed  to  escape.  This  circu- 
lation may  be  regulated  by  a  few  simple 
dampers.  The  timber  is  dried  from  the 
centre  outwards,  the  surfaces  finishing  last ; 
therefore  case-hardening,  splitting,  warp- 
ing and  other  injuries  are  prevented.  By 
this  system  it  is  claimed  that  timber 
which  would  require  a  year  to  dry  in  the 
open  can  be  dried  in  a  week ;  this,  of 
course,  is  a  great  advantage. 


saturated  with  steam.  This  will  take  from 
two  to  twelve  hours,  according  to  the  kind 
and  thickness  of  the  wood.  No  pressure 
is  required,  but  the  door  of  the  chest  or 
top  of  the  barrel  should  be  closed  with  a 
lid  ;  the  fitting  is  not  close,  allowmg  the 
steam  which  has  circulated  round  the  wood 
to  escape.  For  this  reason  the  apparatus 
is  kept  outside  a  building.  The  material 
being  treated  is  kept  from  the  bottom  proper 
to  allow  the  steam  to  become  evenly  distri- 
buted. The  use  of  this  method  is  very 
limited,  because  by  it  the  natural  colours 


34 


CAEPENTKY  AND  JOINERY 


of  many  woods  are  more  or  less  changed, 
especially  in  the  case  of  beech,  the  colour 
of  which  is  changed  from  a  dull  white  to 
the  familiar  reddish  tint.  After  it  is  taken 
out  the  wood  is  piled  under  cover  in  the 
ordinary  manner  and  allowed  to  dry ; 
this,  in  small  thin  material,  usually 
takes  three  weeks  or  a  month.  The 
drying  time  might  be  considerably  short- 
ened by  utilising  the  space  above  the 
boiler  as  a  drying  loft.  A  temperature  of 
120°  F.  to  180°  F.  (obtainable  above  most 


4 


Fig.  132. — Barrel  for  Seasoning  Small  Timber. 

boilers)  would  get  the  drying  over  in  a 
day  or  two,  but  the  material  should  not 
be  transferred  to  such  a  position  direct 
from  the  steam-box  ;  let  it  have  a  few  days' 
ordinary  drying  first.  The  apparatus  illus- 
trated by  Fig.  132  is  also  suitable  for  steam- 
bending  purposes. 

Shrinkage  During  Seasoning. — During  sea- 
soning a  large  proportion  of  the  moisture 
evaporates,  causing  the  fibres  to  shrink  and 
the  timber  to  become  less  in  bulk  and  weight. 
Timber  is  considered  fit  for  carpenters' 
work  when  it  has  lost  one-fifth  of  its  weight, 
and  for  joiners'  work  when  it  has  lost  one- 
third.  It  also  becomes  lighter  in  colour 
and  more  easily  worked.  The  shrinkage  is 
scarcely  perceptible  in  the  length,  but  is 
very  considerable  in  the  width,  measuring 
circumferentially  on  the  annual  rings  (see 
R  and  G,  Fig.  126).    Radially,  or  in  the 


direction  of  the  medullary  rays,  the  shrink- 
age is  only  slight,  as  shown  by  the  board 
P,  Fig.  126.  If  the  log  is  whole,  the 
shrinkage  causes  shakes  and  wind-cracks  ; 
if  cut  up  into  planks  or  quartering,  the 
shrinkage  is  determined  by  the  position  of 
the  annual  rings,  and,  with  care,  shakes  are 
not  caused.  The  wood  curls  or  bends 
breadthwise,  with  the  edges  turning  on  the 
side  which  is  farthest  away  from  the  heart. 
This  is  illustrated  at  e,  g,  and  h,  Fig.  126. 
This  circumstance  must  always  be  considered 
in  fixing  timber  in  position. 

Preserving  Timber. 

Bethell 's  Process. — There  are  a  number  of 
preservative  processes  other  than  season- 
ing which  are  of  value  in  increasing  the 
durability  of  timber.  Bethell' s  process, 
also  known  as  creosoting,  consists  in  placing 
pieces  of  seasoned  timber  in  closed  wrought- 
iron  cylinders,  from  which,  and  also  from 
the  pores  of  the  wood,  the  air  is  extracted. 
Oil-of-tar,  known  as  creosote,  is  then  forced 
into  the  cylinders  and  pores  of  the  wood, 
at  a  temperature  of  about  120°,  and  under 
a  pressure  of  60  lb.  to  170  lb.  per  square 
inch,  according  to  the  porosity  of  the  wood 
and  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  required. 
The  quantity  forced  into  the  wood  varies 
from  3  lb.  per  cubic  foot  in  some  hard  woods 
to  12  lb.  in  soft  woods. 

Bouchere's  Process. — This  consists  in 
placing  a  reservoir,  containing  100  parts  in 
weight  of  water  to  1  part  of  sulphate  of 
copper,  in  a  position  about  40  ft.  or  50  ft. 
above  the  timber,  and  connecting  it  by  a 
flexible  tube  to  a  cap  which  is  fixed  tight 
to  one  end  of  the  piece  of  timber  under 
treatment.  The  pressure  is  sufficient  for 
the  fluid  to  force  out  the  sap  at  the  other 
end  and  take  its  place  in  the  pores  of  the 
timber. 

Burnett's  System. — By  this  system  a  fluid 
is  prepared  in  the  proportion  of  1  lb.  of 
chloride  of  zinc  to  4  gal.  of  water.  The 
timber  is  sometimes  laid  in  a  bath  of  this 
fluid  until  it  has  absorbed  sufficient ;  or 
the  solution  is  forced  under  pressure  into 
the  timber.  The  value  of  the  above  pro- 
cesses lies  in  the  preservation  of  the  timber 
from  dry  and  wet  rot,  and,  in  the  case  of  the 
latter  two  systems,  from  most  insects,  so 


TIMBER. 


35 


long  as  the  salts  remain  in  the  timber ;  but 
by  some  authorities  the  salts  are  said  to  be 
gradually  removed  by  the  action  of  water, 
and  thus  in  time  the  timber  becomes  a  prey 
to  insects  and  decay.  When,  however, 
timber  is  treated  thoroughly  by  Bethell's 
process,  its  durability  is  greatly  increased, 
and  it  is  rendered  proof  against  the  attacks 
of  every  insect,  including  the  white  ant. 


Fig.  135.  Fig.  136. 

Fig.  135. — Old  Method  of  Converting  Logs  into 
Deals.    Fig.  136. — Modern  Method  of  Converting 
Logs  into  Deals. 


Converted  Timber. 

A  log  is  the  trunk  of  a  tree  after  the 
branches  are  lopped  off.  A  balk  is  a  log 
which  has  been  squared  by  means  either 
of  sawing  or  adzing  ;  the  latter  would  be 
known  as  a  hewn  balk.  Planks  are  pieces  of 
sawn  timber  from  2  in.  to  6  in.  thick,  11  in. 
to  18  in.  wide,  and  from  8  ft.  and  upward  in 
length.  Deals  are  from  2  in.  to  4  in.  thick 
and  9  in.  wide.  Battens  are  from  4J  in. 
to  7  in.  wide,  and  from  2  in.  to  4  in.  thick. 
Boards  are  pieces  of  sawn  timber  of  any 
length  and  breadth,  but  not  exceeding  2  in. 
in  thickness.  Scantlings  are  pieces  of  timber 
which  have  been  sawn  to  4  in.  by  4  in.,  4  in. 
by  3  in.,  4  in.  by  2  in.,  3  in.  by  3  in.,  3  in. 
by  2  in.,  etc.  The  smallest  pieces  are  fre- 
quently called  quarterings. 


Converting  Timber. 

In  converting  timber  into  planks  or 
boards  the  shrinkage  and  warping  to  be 
expected  in  use  depend  upon  what  part  of 
the  tree  the  piece  is  cut  from.  Practically, 
the  stuff  will  only  shrink  along  the  curved 
lines  of  the  annual  rings,  and  not  from  the 
outside  towards  the  centre  ;  so  that,  a  tree 
being  cut  into  planks,  the  alteration  produced 
by  seasoning  is  shown  in  Figs.  126  and  133. 
A  piece  of  quartering  would,  in  the  same 
way,  if  originally  die-square,  become  obtuse 
angled  on  two  opposite  edges,  and  acute 


Fig.  137. — Converting  Pitchpine  Logs  into  Boards 
to  show  the  Grain. 

angled  on  the  other  two,  as  in  Fig.  134.  In 
the  conversion  of  fir,  the  old  system  is 
shown  at  Fig.  135,  which  is  objection- 
able on  account  of  the  centre  deal  contain- 
ing the  pith  enclosed,  and  being  therefore 
more  subject  to  dry  rot.  Fig.  136  shows 
the  modern  method  of  conversion,  where 
the  9x3  deals  go  to  the  English  market, 
and  the  9  x  1|-  to  the  French  market.  Of 
the  remainder  in  each  case,  some  is  cut  up 
into  battens  and  fillets  for  slating  and  tiling, 
and  similar  purposes,  and  the  rest  used  as 
fuel.  The  method  of  converting  a  pitch- 
pine  log  so  as  to  show  the  best  possible  grain 
is  indicated  by  Fig.  137  (see  also  p.  48).  In 
converting  oak,  the  method  will  depend 
upon  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  required. 
For  thin  stuff,  where  the  silver  grain  or 
"  flower  "  is  desired  to  appear,  the  method 


36 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


shown  at  a  (Fig.  138)  is  best,  and  that  at  b 
second  best,  the  object  being  to  get  the 
greatest  number  of  pieces  with  the  face 
nearly  parallel  to  the  medullary  rays.  The 
method  shown  at  c  makes  less  waste,  but 
does  not  show  up  the  grain  so  well ;  while 


and  seasoning.  It  will  be  noticed  that  Fig. 
140  undergoes  the  least  change.  At  Fig.  143 
two  planks  are  represented  occupying 
adjacent  positions  in  the  same  log.  Fig. 
144  indicates  the  change  in  shape  of  each 
after  conversion  and  seasoning.    The  centre 


Fig.  138. — Converting  Oak  into 
Boards. 


Fig.  139. — Square  Scantlings. 


Fig.  140.         Fig.  141. 

Fig.  140. — Scantling  from  Centre. 
Fig.  141. — Scantling  from  Side. 


Fig.  142. — Scantling  from  Edge. 


Fig.  143.— Planks. 


Fig.  144. — Alteration  of  Form 
in  Planks. 


Fig.  145. — Warping  of  Planks. 


Fig.  148.— Well  Jointed  Planks. 


Fig.  146.- 


-Plank  Cut  to  show 
Figure. 


Fig.  147. 


-Oak  Plank  showing 
Figure. 


Fig.  149.— Badly  Jointed  Planks. 


D  is  the  most  economical  when  larger  scant- 
lings are  required. 

How  the  Cutting-  of  Timber  Affects 
its  Use. 

The  method  of  cutting  timber  has  a  big 
effect  upon  its  use.  Fig.  139  shows  square 
scantlings  occupying  three  different  positions 
in  the  same  log  ;  Figs.  140  to  142  show  the 
alteration  of  form  in  each  piece  after  sawing 


plank  and  those  to  the  left  in  Fig.  145 
indicate  how  boards  cut  from  the  log  tend 
to  shrink  and  warp  if  unrestrained.  If  the 
boards  are  cut  as  shown  at  k,  there  would 
be  the  least  alteration  in  form.  Timber 
should  be  cut  as  represented  at  Fig.  146  in 
order  to  show  the  figure  formed  by  the 
annual  rings.  When  it  is  required  to  obtain 
oak  panels,  etc.,  showing  the  beautiful 
markings  of  the  medullary  rays,  the  timber 


TIMBER. 


37 


should  be  cut  as  shown  at  Fig.  147.  By 
arranging  boards  as  in  Fig.  148  a  better 
joint  is  made  than  that  shown  at  Fig.  149. 
When  mouldings  are  prepared  from  wood 
which  has  been  cut  so  that  the  annual  rings 
are  nearly  parallel  to  the  breadth  (see  Fig. 
150),  there  is  almost  sure  to  be  more  or 
less  shrinkage,  which  will,  of  course,  take 
place  in  the  breadth  and  thus  produce  an 


Fig.  150. — Shrinkage  of  Moulding. 

open  mitre  as  shown,  although  the  work- 
manship may  be  first  rate.  Fig.  151  shows 
the  best  arrangement,  the  annual  rings  being 
at  right  angles  to  the  breadth. 

Cutting  Strong-est  Beam  from  Round 
Log. 

By  mathematical  investigation  Fig.  152 
shows  the  graphic  method  of  finding  the 
strongest  rectangular  beam  that  can  be  cut 


Fig,  151. — Best  Arrangement  of  Grain  in 
Mouldings. 

out  of  a  round  log  of  timber.  The  diameter 
is  divided  into  three  equal  parts,  and  per- 
pendiculars are  raised  on  opposite  sides  on 
the  inner  ends  of  the  outer  divisions.  The 
four  points  in  which  the  circumference  is 
touched  are  then  joined  to  give  the  beam 

AEBF.     The    proportion    is  =  79, 

A  F  v 

because  by  Euclid  II.  14,  v/a7d  x  eub  = 
=    FD,    and  by    Euclid    I.    47,    fb  = 


v/(F  d)'^  +  D  B'-^    also  A  F   =  v/(a  b)"'  -  (F  b)'- 

Let  A  B  =  1 ,  then  f  d  —  ' 


F  B 


3 


v/3 


,  ,  A  F  =  y  1-. 


y2  FB 

— 7^  and 

-v/O  A  F 


Fig.  152.— Strongest  Beam  from  a  Round  Log, 


v/3 


y2 

v/3 


When  the  diameter  of 


1  ^  ^i.  A  ^^  y2  1-414 
log  A  B  =  a,  the  depth  a  f  =  =  

1  D 


y3  1-732 


•816c/,  and  the  breadth  f  b  = 

It  must  be  fully  understood,  of  course,  that 
the  above  shows  only  the  mathematical 
calculation  corresponding  to  the  graphic 


Fig.  153. — StifFest  Beam  from  a  Round  Log. 

diagram,  and  does  not  in  any  way  prove 
the  statement  that  this  beam  will  be  the 
strongest  that  can  be  cut  out  of  a  round  log. 
The  calculations  necessary  to  prove  that 
statement  would  probably  be  a  laborious 
matter.  But  given  such  a  beam,  its  strength 
could  be  calculated  by  ordinary  formula, 
and  then  another  beam  slightly  narrower, 
and  a  beam  slightly  broader,  both  in- 
scribed in  the  circle^  could  be  tested  by 
the  same  formula. 


38 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Cutting  Stiffest   Beam   from  Round 
Log. 

The  stifiest  rectangular  beam  that  can 
be  cut  out  of  a  round  log  of  timber  is  shown 
in  Fig.  153,  where  the  diameter  is  divided 
into  four  equal  parts,  but  otherwise  the 
construction  and  calculation   will    be  on 


Fig.  154. — Lining  Log  Timber. 


similar  lines  to  the  above,  resulting  in 

;  and  with  a  log  of  diameter  a  b  = 

—  V  o 

D  the  depth  of  the  stiffest  beam  will  be 
•866d  and  the  breadth  "Sd. 

Selecting-  Timber. 

See  that  timber  is  free  from  sap,  large  or 
loose  knots,  flaws,  shakes,  stains  or  blemishes 
of  any  kind.  A  light  portion  near  one  edge 
indicates  sap,  and  an  absence  of  grain  will 
be  observed  on  it.  This  portion  decays 
first  and  gets  soft.    The  darker  the  natural 


4         Fig.  155.— Lining  Balk  Timber. 


wood,  the  hghter  is  the  sappy  portion  usually 
when  dry.  Good  timber  should  be  uniform 
in  substance,  straight  in  fibre,  and  not 
twisted,  warped,  or  waney.  Diagonal  knots 
are  particularly  objectionable  in  timber  for 
piles.  Good  timber  should  smell  sweet 
when  fresh  cut,  and  it  has  a  firm,  bright 
surface,  and  does  not  clog  the  saw.  The 
annular  rings  should  be  fairly  regular  and 
approximately  circular ;  the  closer  and  nar- 


rower the  rings  the  stronger  the  timber. 
The  colour  should  be  uniform  throughout, 
and  not  become  suddenly  lighter  towards 
the  edges.  Good  timber  is  sonorous  when 
struck  ;  a  dull  sound  indicates  decay.  In 
specimens  of  the  same  class  of  timber  the 
heavier  is  generally  the  stronger. 

Marking  Out  Timber  for  Pit  Sawing. 

Pit  sawyers  employ  various  methods  for 
lining  timl3er  that  is  to  be  sawn  ;  one  reli- 


Fig.  156.— Ochre  Box. 


able  method  is  shown  by  Fig.  154.  The 
wedge  boy  (as  he  is  termed)  holds  the  string 
centrally  at  one  end  of  the  log,  and  the 
sawyer  holds  it  at  the  other  end.  The 
string  is  then  pulled  tight,  and  one  of  the 
sawyers  raises  it  at  the  centre  (the  string 
should  not  be  raised  exactly  vertical,  but 
pulled  slightly  at  one  side),  then  lets  it  go, 
so  as  to  strike  a  line  the  whole  length  of  the 
log.  A  plumb-Hne  a  is  then  hung  over  the 
end  of  the  log  by  one  of  the  sawyers,  and 
when  perfectly  plumb  with  the  centre  line, 
it  is  pulled  tightly  against  the  bottom  edge 
of  the  log.  The  other  sawyer  pulls  the 
string  and  strikes  a  central  vertical  line,  as 
shown  at  B.  A  similar  line  is  struck  at  the 
other  end  of  the  log,  after  which  the  thick- 


Fig.  157.— Wood  for  Pulling  String. 

ness  of  the  planks  that  are  to'  be  sawn  is 
pricked  off  with  a  pair  of  compasses,  as 
indicated  by  the  dots  on  the  end  of  the  log. 
The  plumb-line  is  again  hung  over  the  end 
of  the  log  in  perfect  line  with  the  compass 
marks.  Vertical  lines,  as  before,  are  then 
struck,  then  corresponding  longitudinal  Hues. 
When  lining  a  square  balk,  a  centre  line  is 
first  struck,  then  the  thickness  of  the  planks 
is  pricked  off,  as  shown  in  Fig.  155,  and  the 
lines  are  struck.  The  plumb-line  is  then 
hung  over  the  end,  as  shown,  and  the  vertical 


TIMBER. 


39 


lines  are  struck.  The  log  or  balk  is  now 
turned  over,  and  longitudinal  lines  corre- 
sponding with  the  vertical  lines  are  struck. 
To  make  an  impression  that  may  be  clearly 
seen,  the  top  and  end  lines  are  struck  with 
a  string  that  has  been  passed  through  a 
mixture  of  red  ochre  and  water  of  the  con- 
sistency of  thin  paste.  The  string  used  for 
lining  the  under  side  of  the  timber  is  passed 
through  whiting.  A  red  or  dark  line  can 
be  better  followed  by  the  top  sawyer, 
while  from  underneath  a  white  line  can  be 
best  seen.  The  ochre  is  placed  in  a  little 
box  (see  Fig.  156)  and  water  added.  There 
is  a  handle  at  c,  and  a  notch  at  d.  The 
string  is  placed  in  the  box  and  drawn 
through  the  notch.  A  thin  piece  of 
wood,  as  Fig.  157,  is  placed  on  the  string 
while  it  is  being  pulled  through  the  notch, 
otherwise  it  would  be  necessary  for  the 
finger  and  thumb  to  guide  the  string,  and 
to  remove  the  surplus  ochre  that  may  be 
on  it. 

Weight  and  Strength  of  Timber. 

These  particulars  are  given  in  the  accom- 
panying table. 


(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

(5) 

(6) 

'3  o 

Mame. 

(B  O 
11 

o 

Selected  Quality. 

Weig] 
cub. 

Ultira 
Tens 
Stren 

Ultim 
ompre 

III 

imate 
essure 
Grai 

o 

lbs. 

tons  per 

tons  per 

tons  per 

sq.  in. 

sq.  in. 

sq.  in. 

American  red  pine  . . 

37 

2-2 

4-0 

Ash  

45 

2-0 

3-5 

5-0 

Baltic  oak    . . 

48 

3-0 

3-2 

4-3 

Beech , . 

47 

1-9 

3-8 

4-5 

Elm  

37 

2-0 

3-0 

3-0 

English  oak  . . 

50 

3-0 

3-2 

5-0 

•90 

Greenheart  . . 

60 

5-8 

8-0 

Honduras  mahogany 

35 

1-5 

2-8 

4-9 

•58 

Kauri  pine    . . 

38 

2-8 

4-8 

Larch . . 

35 

1-5 

2-0 

3-5 

Northern  pine 

37 

1-5 

2-9 

4-0 

•60 

Pitchpine 

50 

2-9 

5-0 

•76 

Spanish  mahogany . . 

53 

1-8 

3-0 

5-0 

V9 

Spruce  fir 

31 

1-5 

2-5 

3-6 

•22 

Teak  

50 

3-0 

3-8 

5-0 

White  pine  . . 

28 

1  1-8 

1 

3-8 

•27 

The  safe  load  in  tension  and  compression 
(columns  3  and  4)  would  be  from  one-tenth 
to  one-fifteenth  of  the  amounts  given.  The 
safe  bearing  pressure  across  the  grain  of 
timber  as  at  the  ends  of  a  beam  will  be  about 
one-fifth  of  the  amounts  given  in  column  6. 
Column  5  gives  the  coefficient  c  in  the  for- 
mula w  =  cb  L,  and  the  safe  load 
would  be  about  one-sixth  of  w  for  temporary 
work,  or  one-tenth  for  permanent  loads. 


Fig.  158.  Fig.  159.  Fig.  160. 

Fig.  158. — Beam  6  in.  x  6  in.        Fig.  159, — Beam 
6  in.  X  3  in.     Fig.  160. — Beam  12  in.  x  3  in. 

Calculating  Strength  of  Timber 
Beams. 

The  strength  of  solid  timber  beams  varies 
as  the  square  of  the  depth,  directly  as  the 
width,  and  inversely  as  the  span.  Thus,  in 
a  beam  6  in.  square  (Fig.  158),  multiplying 
the  width  by  the  square  of  the  depth  gives 
6  X  6'  =  6  X  36  =  216  ;  and  if  this  beam 
was  sawn  down  the  middle,  there  would  be 
3  X  6'  =  3  X  36  =  108  (Fig.  159).  Another 
case  is  that  of  a  beam  12  in.  deep  and  3  in. 
wide  (Fig.  160),  and  the  corresponding 
figure  then  is  3  x  12'^  =  3  x  144  =  432. 
The  ordinary  formula  for  the  strength  of  a 
beam  lying  loose  on  the  bearings  at  each 
end,  and  with  central  load  (Fig.  161),  is  as 


n 


Fig,  161. — Loose  Beam  with  Central  Load. 


square  of  depth  in  inches,  l  =  length  of 
bearing  in  feet,  c  =  constant,  for  which 
Barlow  and  Tredgold  give  a  value  for  Kiga 
of  c  =  4|  cwt.  This  constant  is  obtained 
from  the  results  of  trials,  but  it  must  be 
noted  that  such  tests  vary  considerably. 
The  strength  of  timber  will  vary  in  the  same 
cargo,  and  allowance  must  be  made  for  the 
difference  in  the  growth  and  fibres  of  the 


40 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


various  pieces,  and  for  the  effect  of  shakes, 
knots,  etc.  For  example,  the  case  of  a 
balk  ISJ  in.  square  and  10  ft.  6  in.  span 
gave  1,114  cwt.  as  the  result  according  to 
Tredgold,  and  1,120  cwt.  according  to 
Barlow.  The  same  size  and  quaUty  of 
timber  tested  by  the  Mersey  Dock  Engineers 


Fig.  162. — Beam  with  Wrought  Iron  Strap. 

gave  a  result  of  GIO  cwt.  only,  against  the 
preceding  figures.  It  appears  from  the 
latter  example  that  the  constant  should  be 
reduced  to,  say,  2*6  or  2'3,  or  say  2-5  to  3 
for  Memel  timber.  The  formula  then  is 
B  d  "^  c 


where  w  is  the  breaking  weight  in  cwt.  in 
the  centre  of  the  span.    We  then  have  for 


An  experiment  was  made  some  time  ago 
by  Kirkaldy  on  the  strength  added  to  a 
beam  by  the  fixing  on  the  top  of  the  beam 
of  a  flat  iron  bar.  The  span  of  the  beam 
was  24  ft.,  and  the  depth  and  width  were 
14  in.  and  12  in.  respectively.  According 
to  the  above  formula,  with  a  constant  of  3, 
the  central  breaking  load  should  be 
14^  X  12  X  3 

 24  =  294   cwt.  =  14J   tons,  or 

14^  X  12  X  2*5 

with  constant  of  2*5  ^ .  =  245 

24 

cwt.  =  12J  tons.  When  the  experiment 
was  made,  however,  the  beam  snapped  sud- 
denly with  a  central  load  of  10  tons,  showing 
that  the  above  constants  were  too  high  for 
this  case.  A  similar  beam  (Fig.  162)  was 
then  provided  with  a  wrought-iron  strap 
fixed  on  the  top,  and  it  was  then  found  that 
the  beam  failed  slowly  and  gradually  under 
a  load  of  13  tons — an  experiment  which 
showed  that  added  strength  was  given  to 


Fig.  163. — Cup-shake  in  Log. 

a  beam  12  in.  wide,  11  in.  deep,  and  24  ft. 
span,  a  strength  of 
12  X  11^  X  3 

 =  181*5  cwt.  =  9  tons  H  cwt. 

24  ^ 

Kirkaldy's  experiments  with  a  beam  of  this 
span  and  size  showed  the  strength  to  be 
10  tons.  It  is  considered  that  timber  has 
a  set  with  only  one-fifth  of  its  breaking  load, 
and  is  really  safe  when  loaded  to  only  one- 
sixth  of  the  breaking  load.  If  the  beam  is 
fixed  at  both  ends,  it  is  stronger  than  when 
only  supported  at  the  ends  as  3  is  to  2. 
Some  qualities  of  timber  are  stronger  in 
tension  than  in  compression,  whilst  others 
have  just  the  opposite  qualities.  Experi- 
ments show  that  Dantzig  fir  is  crushed 
before  it  is  torn  asunder  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
that  its  ultimate  compressive  stress  is  less 
than  its  ultimate  tensile  stress  as  4  is  to  5. 


Fig.  165. — Heart-shake  in  Log. 

the  beam  by  the  addition  of  the  iron  bar. 
In  other  kinds  of  timber  possibly  the  iron 
strengthening  bar  should  be  on  the  other 
side  of  the  beam. 


Fig.  166. — Heart-shake  in  Balk. 

Defects  in  Balk  Timber. 

Cup-shakes. — These  are  cracks  extending 
circumferentially  at  one  or  more  places, 
caused  by  the  separation  of  the  annual  rings,, 
as  in  Figs.  163  and  164. 


Fig.  164. — Cup-shake  in  Balk. 


TIMBER. 


41 


Doatiness. — This  is  a  speckled  stain  found 
in  beech,  American  oak,  and  other  timber, 
due  to  incipient  decay.  It  is  produced  by 
imperfect  seasoning  or  by  exposure  for  a 
long  period  to  a  stagnant  atmosphere. 


Fig.  167. — Sapwood  in     Fig.  168. — Star-shake 
Balk.  in  Log. 


Dry  Rot. — If  the  balks  have  been  stacked 
on  land  with  insufficient  ventilation,  the 
growth  of  a  fungus  over  them,  hke  white  or 
brown  roots,  may  indicate  that  dry  rot  has 
already  begun,  although  it  is  chiefly  found 
under  kitchen  floors. 

Foxiness. — A  reddish  or  yellowish  brown 
tint  in  the  grain,  caused  by  incipient  decay. 


Fig.  169. — Star-shake  in  Balk. 

Heart-shakes. — These  are  splits  or  clefts 
occurring  in  the  centre  of  the  tree,  as  in 
Figs.  165  and  166.  They  are  common  in 
nearly  every  variety  of  timber,  and  are 
very  serious  when  they  twist  in  the  length, 
as  they  interfere  with  the  conversion  of  the 
tree  into  boards  or  scantlings.    They  some- 


Fig.  170.— Twisted  Fibres. 


times  divide  the  log  in  two  for  a  few  feet 
from  the  end. 

Knots. — Large,  or  dead  and  loose  knots 
are  objectionable,  as  they  weaken  the 
timber,  and  are  unsightly.    A  timber  pile, 


in  which  knots  occur  diagonally,  is  liable 
to  be  sheared  through  the  knots  or  severely 
damaged  by  the  blows  of  the  ram.  Dantzic 
timber  has  the  largest  knots,  spruce  the 
hardest. 

Rind-galls. — These  are  curved  swellings 
caused  by  the  growth  of  new  layers  over 
a  part  damaged  by  insects,  or  by  tearing 


Fig.  171. — Upset  or  Crushed  Fibres. 


off  or  imperfect  lopping  of  a  branch.  These 
are  shown  by  the  grain  being  irregular  and 
vacuous. 

Sapwood. — This  occurs  more  in  some  trees 
than  in  others — say,  Dantzic  much,  pitch- 
pine  httle.  It  may  be  known  by  its  greenish 
tinge,  and  holding  the  water  longer  than  the 
sound  parts  after  having  been  wet.  If 
creosoted,  the  sapwood  is  as  lasting,  but 
not  so  strong  as  the  heartwood.  It  gener- 
ally occurs  at  the  corners  only  of  the  balks, 
which  arises  from  the  desire  to  save  as 
much  timber  as  possible.    (See  Fig.  167.) 


Fig.  172.— Waney  Edge  in  Balk. 


Star-shakes. — When  several  heart-shakes 
occur  in  one  tree  (see  Figs.  168  and  169) 
they  are  called  star-shakes  from  the  appear- 
ance produced  by  their  radiation  from  the 
centre. 

Thunder-shakes. — These  are  irregular  frac- 
tures across  the  grain,  occurring  chiefly  in 
Honduras  mahogany. 

Twisted  Fibres. — These  are  caused  by  the 
tree  being  twisted  in  its  growth,  from  the 
action  of  the  wind  upon  the  head.  Timber  so 
affected  is  not  suitable  for  cutting  up  into 
joists  or  planks,  owing  to  the  fibres  running 


42 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


diagonally  in  any  longitudinal  cut,  as  in 
Fig.  170.  Oak  with  twisted  fibres  will  not 
retain  its  shape  when  squared,  but  is  very 
suitable  for  splitting  up  into  wall  plugs. 

Upsets. — These  are  portions  of  the  timber 
where  the  fibres  have  been  injured  by  crush- 
ing, as  in  Fig.  171. 

Waney  Edges. — These  occur  when  the  top 
end  of  the  tree  is  not  large  enough  to  hold 
up  to  the  full  size  to  which  the  lower  end 
is  squared,  as  shown  by  Fig.  172.  These 
balks  may  be  used  for  piUng  without  detri- 
ment if  the  top  end  be  driven  downwards. 

Wide  Annual  Rings. — These  generally  indi- 
cate soft  and  weak  timber. 

Wind-cracks. — Shakes  or  splits  on  the 
sides  of  a  balk  of  timber,  caused  by  shrinkage 
of  the  exterior  surface,  as  in  Fig.  172,  are 
called  wind-cracks. 

Wet  Rot. — Timber  that  has  been  lying  long 
in  the  timber  ponds,  and  subjected  to  alter- 
nations of  wet  and  dry,  may  be  so  soft  and 
sodden  as  to  have  reached  the  stage  of  wet 
rot.  The  term  "  wet  rot  "  implies  chemical 
decomposition  of  the  wood  ;  whereas  dry 
rot  is  the  result  of  a  fungous  growth. 

Dry  Rot. 

Cause,  Cure,  and  Prevention. — Dry  rot  is 

a  special  form  of  decay  in  timber,  caused 
by  the  growth  of  a  fungus,  Merulius 
lachrymans,  which  spreads  over  the  sur- 
face as  a  close  network  of  threads,  white, 
yellow,  or  brown,  and  causes  the  inside  to 
perish  and  crumble.  Various  causes  may 
combine  to  render  the  timber  favourable 
to  the  growth  of  this  fungus — namely,  large 
proportion  of  sapwood ;  felled  at  wrong 
season  when  full  of  sap  ;  if  cut  down  in  the 
spring  or  the  fall  of  the  year  instead  of  in 
midwinter  or  midsummer,  when  the  sap  is 
at  rest ;  stacked  for  seasoning  without  suf- 
ficient air  spaces  being  left ;  fixed  before 
thoroughly  seasoned  ;  painted  or  varnished 
while  containing  moisture  ;  built  into  wall 
without  air  space  ;  covered  with  linoleum  : 
exposed  to  warm,  stagnant  air,  as  under 
kitchen  floors.  There  is  no  cure  when  the 
fungus  has  obtained  a  good  hold.  The  worst 
must  be  cut  out  and  remainder  painted 
with  blue  vitriol  (cupric  sulphate).  The 
best  preventive  is  to  use  only  well-seasoned 
timber  and  to  keep  it  well  ventilated. 


Detection  and  Treatment  of  Dry  Rot. — 

When  dry  rot  is  suspected  in  a  floor  the 
floor-boards  should  be  lifted  at  the  corners 
of  the  room,  or  at  dead  ends  of  passages, 
or  wherever  signs  of  weakness  show  them- 
selves, and  the  surfaces  of  the  joists,  wall- 
plates,  and  under  side  of  the  floor-boards 
should  be  closely  examined  for  fungus, 
mildew,  or  any  unhealthy  sign,  such  as  a 
brown  semi-charred  appearance.  If  any  is 
found,  the  worst  parts  should  be  cut  out  and 
renewed,  the  remainder  well  scraped  over, 
including  the  walls,  and  well  washed  with  a 
solution  of  blue  copperas  (sulphate  of  copper). 
If  the  earth  below  is  found  to  be  damp,  a 
layer  of  cement  concrete  should  be  spread 
over  it,  not  less  than  4  in.  thick.  Air  bricks 
and  ducts  should  be  placed  in  the  walls  on 
opposite  sides,  to  get  a  through  current,  as 
moist,  warm,  stagnant  air  is  the  most  potent 
aid  to  dry  rot ;  and  every  endeavour  should 
be  made  to  obtain  thorough  ventilation. 
The  means  of  prevention  are  :  Thorough 
seasoning,  free  ventilation,  creosoting  or 
charring  if  necessarily  exposed  to  damp 
earth,  and  painting  with  vitriol  or  cupric 
sulphate. 

Preservation  of  Wood  Underground. 

The  best  way  to  preserve  from  decay  wood 
that  is  to  be  buried  in  the  ground  is  to  creosote 
the  wood  ;  this  does  not  mean  painting  the 
wood  over  with  tar,  but  proper  creosoting 
by  the  regular  process.  The  butt-end  of  a 
post  to  be  placed  in  the  ground  may  be 
charred  over  a  wood  fire,  quenching  with 
water  when  the  wood  is  charred,  say,  J  in. 
to  J  in.  deep.  This  will  prevent  rotting  and 
the  attacks  of  worms,  but  it  is  necessary  that 
the  wood  should  be  previously  well  seasoned, 
or  the  confined  moisture  will  cause  decay. 
Chloride  of  zinc  and  water,  about  1  to  4, 
in  which  wood  is  steeped  under  Sir  Wm. 
Burnett's  system  (see  p.  34),  preserves 
the  timber  from  decay  and  renders  it  in- 
combustible. A  method  sometimes  adopted 
is  to  bed  the  posts  in  cement  concrete,  but 
this  is  not  quite  so  good  as  creosoting. 

Soft  Woods  and  Hard  Woods. 

Timber  trees  are  usually  divided  into  two 
great  classes  : — (a)  Soft  woods  or  coniferous 
woods  ;     (6)    hardwoods    or    leaf  woods. 


TIMBER. 


43 


So  far  as  the  texture  and  hardness  of  each 
is  concerned,  some  of  the  former  are  really 
more  difficult  to  work  than  the  latter.  For 
example,  pitchpine,  owing  to  its  resinous 
nature,  is  usually  more  difficult  to  work 
than  basswood,  or  the  softer  kinds  of 
mahogany.  The  general  distinguishing  fea- 
tures of  soft  woods  are  : — All  the  trees 
bear  cones  and  never  have  broad  flat  leaves. 
The  timber  usually  has  distinct  annual  rings 
formed  of  two  layers,  the  inner  one  (known 
as  springwood)  being  soft,  porous,  and  pale 
in  colour  ;  the  outer  (called  autumn  wood) 
is  harder,  more  compact,  and  filled  with 
resinous  matter.  The  whole  annual  ring 
is  formed  of  long  tapering  tubes,  interlaced, 
and  breaking  joint  with  each  other,  and 
having  a  small  portion  of  cellular  tissue  at 
intervals,  and  resinous  matter  in  the  inter- 
stices. Hardwood  trees  bear  broad  flat 
leaves,  the  timber  is  never  resinous.  The 
annual  rings,  owing  to  slower  growth,  are 
often  much  closer  together  than  in  softer 
wood.  They  are  of  more  uniformity  in 
colour  and  hardness,  but  have  more  or 
less  distinct  radial  lines,  consisting  of  thin, 
hard  vertical  plates,  formed  entirely  of 
cellular  tissue,  the  medullary  rays  or  silver- 
grain  or  flower  already  mentioned. 

Varieties  of  Timber. 

Fir  Timber,  Converted. — Fir  timber,  when 
sawn  into  convenient  sizes  suitable  for 
joiner's  work,  is  called  deal.  It  is  brought 
into  the  market  sawn  into  different  widths, 
which  are  often  classed  as  deals,  or  dis- 
tinguished as  battens,  deals,  and  planks. 
They  vary  from  2  in.  to  4  in.  thick,  but  are 
mostly  3  in.  thick,  and  from  8  ft.  to  over 
20  ft.  in  length.  All  that  are  under  8  ft. 
in  length  are  classed  as  ends,  and  are  sold 
at  a  cheaper  rate.  When  7  in.  wide  and 
under  they  are  termed  battens  ;  deals, 
from  8  in.  to  9  in.  ;  and  planks  when  above 
9  in. 

Baltic  Yellow  or  Red  Deal.— The  best 
yellow  deal  for  building  purposes  is  shipped 
from  the  Russian  ports  of  Petersburg, 
Onega,  and  Archangel,  and  the  Swedish 
ports  of  Soderhamn,  Gefle,  Stockholm,  and 
Holmsund.  Onega,  Archangel,  and  Gefle 
supply  deals  of  the  best  quality.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  Swedish  timber  is  coarse,  but 


at  the  same  time  some  of  the  very  best  deals, 
both  yellow  and  white,  come  from  Gefle  and 
Soderhamn.  The  best  Swedish  deals  run 
more  sound  and  even  in  quality  than  the 
Russian,  owing  to  the  different  way  in  which 
the  timber  is  converted.  A  balk  of  Russian 
timber  is  cut  into  deals,  etc.,  of  one  quality, 
and  thus  they  show  very  many  hearts  or 
centres.  In  Swedish  timber  the  inner  and 
outer  wood  in  the  same  balk  are  converted 
into  different  quality  deals,  the  centre  being 
put  into  the  lower  class  ;  hence  the  high  price 
put  upon  first-class  Swedish  deals.  Deals 
cut  from  the  centre  of  the  log  should  not 
be  cut  into  boards  ;  4-in.  deals  are  in  nearly 
all  cases  cut  from  the  centre  of  the  balk,  and 
consequently  are  subject  to  shakes,  and  un- 
suitable for  boards.  Swedish  2-in.  and 
2J-in.  deals  of  good  quality  are  preferred  to 
3-in.,  as  they  are  cut  from  the  sound  outer 
wood.  Their  value  not  being  generally 
known,  they  do  not  fetch  such  high  prices 
as  the  3-in.  deals.  The  export  of  deals  from 
the  Prussian  ports  of  Dantzic,  Memel, 
Stettin,  etc.,  is  almost  entirely  confined  to 
yellow  planks  and  deck  deals  (also  called 
red  deals),  from  2  in.  to  4  in.  These  are 
suitable  for  scantlings,  framing  of  roofs, 
and  many  purposes  connected  with  house- 
building, engineering,  etc.  The  reason  of 
the  timber  from  the  above  ports  being 
shipped  in  an  unconverted  state  is  that  the 
wood,  being  grown  in  a  warmer  climate,  is 
coarse  in  the  grain,  and  could  not  compete 
in  a  converted  state  with  the  closer- 
grained  exports  from  the  more  northerly 
ports  of  the  Baltic.  Baltic  yellow  deal  or 
red  deal  is  from  the  Pinus  sylvestris,  or 
Northern  pine.  The  colour  of  the  wood  is 
generally  of  a  reddish  yellow  or  of  a  honey 
yellow  of  various  degrees  of  brightness, 
,^-annual  rings  about  in.  wide,  the  outer 
part  being  of  a  bright  and  reddish  colour. 
When  knots  occur  they  are  from  1  in.  up- 
wards in  diameter,  and  not  very  hard ;  they 
are  of  a  rich  red  brown  colour,  and  thin 
shavings  of  them  are  semi-transparent. 
This  timber  is  stronger  and  more  durable 
than  white  deal  {Abies  excelsa,  described 
below). 

Baltic  White  Deal  or  Spruce  Fir. — This  is 
Abies  excelsa,  and  is  used  in  the  common 
qualities  for  the  roughest  work — scaffold 


44 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY 


poles,  scaffold  boards,  centering,  packing 
cases,  etc. — and  in  the  better  qualities  for 
dressers  and  table  tops,  bedroom  floor-boards, 
cupboard  shelves,  etc.  The  wood  is  of 
yellowish  white,  or  sometimes  of  a  brownish 
red  colour,  becoming  of  a  bluish  tint  when 
exposed  to  the  weather.  The  annual  rings 
are  generally  clearly  defined,  the  surface 
when  planed  has  a  silky  lustre,  and  the 
timber  contains  a  large  number  of  very  hard, 
glassy  knots.  The  sapwood  is  not  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  heart.  Baltic  white 
deal  is  recognised  chiefly  by  its  small  hard 
and  dark  knots,  by  its  woolliness  on  leaving 
the  saw,  and  by  its  weathering  to  a  greyish 
tint.  When  fresh  cut,  the  grain  may  be 
more  or  less  pronounced  than  that  of  yellow 
deal.  It  is  subject  to  streaks  of  resin  in 
long  cavities,  and  to  loose  dead  knots. 

^  ~  BEST  MIDDLING 

^       vGOOD  MIDDLING 

^  ==  COMMON  MIDDLING 
Fig.  173. — Dantzic  Timber  Quality  Marks. 

In"white  deal  or  spruce  fir  the  knots  are 
small,  darker,  more  brittle,  and  opaque. 

Scotch  Fir. — This  is  the  wood  of  Pinus 
sylvestris,  and  is  called  also  the  Northern 
pine  and  red  or  yellow  pine.  From  this  the 
timber  known  as  yellow  or  red  deal  is  ob- 
tained ;  it  is  tough  and  strong  for  its  weight, 
durable  and  easily  worked,  cheap  and  plenti- 
ful. Comes  principally  from  the  north  of 
Europe,  and  is  shipped  at  Baltic  ports. 
Characteristics  :  Colour  varies  according  to 
soil  and  habitat ;  generally  of  a  honey 
yellow,  with  distinct  annual  rings  darker 
and  harder  on  the  outside  of  each,  some 
specimens  changing  to  a  reddish  cast  in 
seasoning,  and  others  brownish.  There  are 
no  medullary  rays  visible.  The  best  has 
close  grain  and  a  medium  amount  of  resin 
in  it.  The  wood  is  silky  when  planed, 
and  when  well  seasoned  crisp  and  dry  to 
the  touch.  Its  tenacity  is  5  tons  per 
square  inch,  and  weight  36  lb.  per  cubic 
foot.    It  requires  periodical  painting  when 


exposed  to  the  weather.  It  is  used  for  all 
kinds  of  carpentry  and  joinery.  Its  source 
of  supply  is  chiefly  the  Baltic  ports,  whence 
it  comes  as  deals  and  logs. 

Fir  Timber,  Unconverted. — All  Baltic  fir 
is  akin  to  the  Scotch  fir  [Pinus  sylvestris) 
or  the  spruce  fir  (Abies  excelsa),  the 
wood  of  the  former  being  known  as  red  fir, 
Baltic  fir,  Memel  fir,  etc.,  in  the  uncon- 
verted state,  whilst  the  wood  of  the  spruce 
is  known  as  spruce  fir,  or  white  fir  if  un- 
converted ;  but  as  white  planks,  deals,  or 
battens  if  converted.  At  the  outset  this 
peculiarity  of  calHng  the  same  wood  red  or 
yellow  under  different  circumstances  should 
be  noticed,  since  the  terms  applied  have 
led  to  the  very  prevalent  and  mistaken 
notion  that  red,  yellow,  and  white  denote 
three,  instead  of  only  two,  kinds  of  Baltic 
fir. 

Riga  Fir  comes  from  the  Russian  port  of 
that  name,  north  of  Memel,  and  is  inferior 
in  strength  to  Dantzic  and  Memel  fir  of  best 
quality,  and  does  not  average  so  large.  It 
runs  about  12  in.  square  and  40  ft.  long,  but 
it  is  often  preferred  for  cutting  into  scant- 
lings, being  of  straighter  grain  and  freer 
from  knots.  It  is,  however,  subject  to 
heart-shakes. 

White  Fir.— But  little  Baltic  white  fir 
comes  into  the  market  as  square  timber. 
When  it  does,  it  is  termed  white  timber  or 
spruce  fir ;  but  spruce  poles,  or  the  young 
trees  felled  and  stripped  of  their  branches, 
are  imported  from  Sweden  and  Norway 
for  scaffold  poles,  the  very  best  being  selected 
as  ladder  poles.  They  run  in  lengths  of 
from  18  ft.  to  50  ft. 

Prussian  Fir  Timber. — Sources  :  Memel, 
Dantzic,  Stettin,  Konigsberg.  The  use  of 
the  balks  is  almost  entirely  confined  to 
heavy  timber  work,  as  they  are  too  coarse 
and  open  in  the  grain  for  being  wrought  for 
joiners'  work.  They  are  used  for  outdoor 
carpentry  and  heavy  woodwork,  such  as 
piles,  girders,  roofs,  and  joists.  Dantzic 
— Size  :  14  in.  to  16  in.  square,  20  ft.  to 
50  ft.  long.  Appearance  :  Subject  to  cup- 
and  star-shakes  and  wind-cracks.  Knots 
large  and  numerous,  often  dead  and  loose  ; 
they  are  very  objectionable  when  grouped 
near  the  centre  of  a  beam,  or  for  piles  when 
diagonal.    Annual  rings  wide,  large  pro- 


TIMBER. 


45 


portion  of  sapwood  (frequently  the  whole 
of  the  four  corners  of  the  circumscribing 
square),  20  ft.  to  45  ft.  long,  heart  sometimes 
loose  and  "  cuppy."  Marks  :  Scribed  near 
centre,  as  in  Fig.  173.  It  is  used  for  heavy 
outdoor  carpentry,  where  large  scantlings 
are  required.  Memel  fir  is  tolerably  free 
from  knots,  but  when  they  occur  the  grain 
near  them  is  irregular,  and  is  apt  to  tear  up 
with  the  plane. 

Norwegian  Deals  and  Balks. — Sources  : 
Christiania,  Friedrichstadt,  Drontheim, 
Dram.  Size :  Average  8  in.  to  9  in. 
square,  generally  tapered  ;  scarcely  called 
balk  timber  ;  is  known  as  "  under-sized." 
Appearance  :  Much  sap.  Marks  :  on  balks, 
others  by  letters,  stencilled  in  blue  on  ends. 
Uses :  Staging,  scaffolding,  and  coarse 
carpentry,  the  best  converted  into  deals, 
flooring,  and  imported  joinery.  Norwegian 
timber  is  clean  and  carefully  converted, 
but  is  imported  chiefly  in  the  shape  of 
prepared  flooring  and  matchboarding. 
Scarce  in  form  of  yellow  deals,  but  of  high 
quaUty.  Christiania  best,  but  often  con- 
tains sap;  Christiania  white  deal  used  for 
best  joinery.  Christiania  and  Dram  used 
for  upper  floors  on  account  of  white  colour. 
Friedrichstadt  has  small  black  knots.  Some 
Drammen  deals  warp  and  split  in  drying. 

Swedish  Deals.  —  Sources  :  Stockholm, 
Gefle,  Soderhanm,  Gothenburg,  Sundsvall, 
Holmsund,  Hernosand.  The  greater  por- 
tion of  this  is  coarse  and  bad,  but  some  of 
the  very  best  Baltic  deal  comes  from  Gefle 
and  Scjderhamn.  First  qualities  have  a  high 
character  for  freedom  from  sap,  heart- 
shakes, etc.  The  lower  qualities  have  the 
usual  defects,  being  sappy  and  containing 
large,  coarse  knots.  In  the  best  qualities 
the  knots  are  small,  and  larger  in  the  lower 
qualities.  The  yellow  deal  is  generally 
small,  coarse,  and  bad,  with  large  loose 
knots,  sappy,  liable  to  warp  and  twist,  but 
variable,  the  best  being  equal  to  Norwegian, 
owing  to  care  in  conversion  and  sorting 
out  into  diflerent  qualities.  The  cheap 
imported  joinery  is  made  from  these  deals. 
They  are  suitable  for  floors  where  warping 
can  be  prevented.  Gefle  and  Soderhamn 
deals  are  sometimes  very  good.  White  deals 
from  Gothenburg,  Hernosand  and  Sunds- 
vall are  used  for  packing-cases.    Gefle  and 


Soderhamn  deals  are  good  for  upper  floor- 
ing, dressers,  shelves,  etc.,  and  backing  to 
veneers.  There  are  also  said  to  be  red  deals 
from  the  Baltic  ports  and  from  Canada, 
from  the  Pinus  rubra,  used  for  mould- 
ings and  best  joinery,  very  like  Memel. 
Swedish  woods  are  never  hammer-marked, 
but  invariably  branded  with  letters  or 
devices  stencilled  on  the  ends  in  red  paint, 
which  makes  it  difiicult  to  judge  of  their 
quality  by  inspection,  as  they  are  stacked 
in  the  timber  yards  with  their  ends  only 
showing.  Some  of  the  common  fourth- 
and  fifth- quality  Swedish  goods  are  left 
unmarked,  but  they  may  generally  be  dis- 
tinguished from  Russian  shipments  by  the 
bluer  colour  of  the  sapwood.  The  first  and 
second  qualities  in  Swedish  deals  are  classed 
together  as  "  mixed,"  being  scarcely  ever 

/\  =  BEST  MIDDLING 
=  GOOD  MIDDLING 


=^  COMMON  MIDDLING 
Fig.  174.— Riga  Timber  Quality  Marks. 

sorted  separately,  after  which  come  third- 
down  to  fifth-quality  goods.  Deals  of  lower 
quality  than  third  are  nearly  always  shaky, 
or  very  full  of  defects  of  some  kind. 

Russian  Timber. — Sources  :  Petersburg, 
Archangel,  Onega,  Riga,  Wyborg,  Narva. 
These  yellow  deals  are  the  best  for  general 
building  work,  more  free  than  other  sorts 
from  knots,  shakes,  sap,  etc.,  clean  hard 
grain  and  good  wearing  surface,  but  do 
not  stand  damp  well.  First  three  used  for 
best  floors — all  of  them  for  warehouse  floors 
and  staircases.  Wyborg — very  good,  but 
inclined  to  sap.  Riga — best  balk  timber. 
Size  :  Up  to  12  in.  square,  and  40  ft.  long. 
Appearance :  Knots  few  and  small,  very 
little  sap,  annual  rings  close,  wood  close 
and  straight-grained,  more  colour  than 
Dantzic.  Marks  :  Scribed  at  centre,  as  in 
Fig.  174.  Uses  :  For  masts  and  best  car- 
pentry when  large  enough,  also  for  flooring 
and  internal  joinery.  Petersburg— inclined 
to  be  shaky.    Archangel  and  Onega — knots 


46 


CAUPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


often  surrounded  by  dead  bark,  and  drop 
out  when  timber  is  worked.  The  Russian 
white  deals  shrink  and  swell  with  the  weather, 
even  after  painting.  Best  from  Onega. 
Russian  deals  generally  come  unmarked 
into  the  market,  or  only  dry  stamped  or 
marked  at  their  ends  with  the  blow  of  a 
branding  hammer,  such  marks  being  also 
termed  hard  brands.  In  some  cases  where 
the  goods  are  not  branded,  the  second 
quality  have  a  red  mark  across  the  ends, 
third-  being  easily  distinguished  from  first- 
quality  goods.  The  well-known  Gromoff 
Petersburg  deals  are,  however,  marked 
with  "  C.  and  Co.,"  the  initials  of  the 
shippers   (Clarke   &  Company). 

First  Quality  Marks 

Gromoff       or  1 


Second  Quality  Marks 

Gromoff  or 


0 


Another  good  Petersburg  brand  is 
"  P.  B."  (Peter  Belaieff)  for  best,  and  "  P.  B. 
2  "  for  second  quality. 

St.  Petersburg  Brands  : — 

Belaiefi's  Shipment. 

First  Quality  Marks. 
P  B  S  &  Co. 
Second  Quality  Marks. 
P  B  S  &  Co. 
2 

Third  Quality  Marks. 
P  B  S  &  Co. 
3 

Russanoff  &  Co. 

First. 
N  Ri  &  S 

Second. 
N  R2  &  S 

Third. 

N  R3  &  S 


N.  Pavloff. 


First. 
WO^  D  A 

LOG 

Second. 
W  O  L  O  G  D  A 


Russian  Goods  : — 

Imperial   Appanage   Shipment  (Czar's 
Stock). 


1  «f 

2nd. 

Double 

Double 

Eagle 

Eagle 

3rd. 

4th. 

Double 

T 

Double 

Eagle 

Eagle 

Bds. 
White 


All  hammered  on  butt  with  the  Imperial 
Arms  (double  eagle). 

Best  Archangel  Stock: — 

Maimax  Shipment. 
Yeo.  1^34 
1  A  ^  0 

©  ©  © 

Onega  Wood  Co.'s  Shipment. 
Deals  \ 

Battens  |      ^  ^  3  4 

Boards      X  Red  V  Red    V  Black  V  Red 
Amossoff,  Gernet  Shipment. 

A  G  &  Co.  AG  &  Co. 

A  B 

A  G  &  Co.  AG  &  Co. 

C  D 

Archangel : — 

E.  H.  Brandt  &  Co.  Shipment. 
1st.  2nd.  3rd.  4th. 

Marks,  Archangel : — 

Olsen  &  Stampe  Shipment. 
OS  OS  OS  OS 

I  II  III  IV 

Surkow  &  Shergold  Shipment. 
S&S       S&S       S&S  Sets 
I  II  III  IV 

Surkow  &  Shergold  K  E  M  Shipment. 
K  E  M.  I      K  E     2      K  E  M.  3     K  E  M.  4 
Russanoff's  Mesane  Shipment. 
R  R  R  R 

N&S       N&S        N&S  N&S 

I  2  3  4 

Timbers  from  Russian  and  Finland  ports 
are  dry-stamped  on  the  ends  without  colour. 


TIMBER. 


47 


American  Yellow  Pine. — This  is  the  wood 
of  Pinus  strobus,  and  is  known  also  as 
American   yellow   deal,   Weymouth  pine, 
American  white  pine,  pattern-maker's  pine, 
etc.    It  is  used  chiefly  for  panels  on  account 
of  its  great  width,  for  moulding  on  account 
of  its  uriform  grain  and  freedom  from 
knots,  and  for  patterns   for  casting  irom 
on  account  of  its  softness  and  easy  working. 
It  is  very  uniform  in  texture,  of  a  very  pale 
honey-yellow  or  straw  colour,  turning  brown 
with  age,  usually  free  from  knots,  and 
specially  recognised  by  short,  dark,  hair- 
like markings  in  the  grain  when  planed, 
and  its  light  weight.    It  is  subject  to  cup- 
shakes  and  to  incipient  decay,  going  brown 
and  "  mothery."    It  takes  glue  well,  but 
splits  in  nailing.    American  woods  are  not 
branded,  as  a  rule,  though  some  houses  use 
brands  in  imitation  of  the  Baltic  marks, 
though  without  following  any  definite  rules. 
The  qualities  may,  however,  very  often  be 
known  by  red  marks   "  I.,"  "  IL,"  III.," 
upon  the  sides  or  ends,  but  the  qualities  of 
American  yellow  deals  are  easily  told  by  in- 
spection, the  custom  in  the  London  Docks 
being  to  stack  them  on  their  sides,  so  as  to 
expose  their  faces  to  view,  and  allow  of  free 
ventilation.    Woods  from  Canadian  ports 
have  black  letters  and  white  letters  on  the 
ends,  and  red  marks  on  the  edges.  American 
yellow  pine  may  be  purchased  in  balks  over 
60  ft.  in  length  and  24  in.  square.    It  is 
not  so  strong  as  the  American  red  pine,  but 
is  much  lighter,  and  so  is  distinguished  when 
floating  by  the  height  it  stands  above  the 
water.    First- quality  pine  costs  more  than 
any  other  soft  wood  used  for  joinery. 

American  Red  Pine. — This  is  the  wood  of 
the  Pinus  mitis,  which  is  called  in 
America  the  yellow  pine,  and  is  very  like 
the  wood  of  the  Scotch  fir,  though  it  does 
not  equal  it  in  strength  or  durability, 
neither  does  it  grow  so  large  as  the  Dantzic 
and  Memel  timber.  Being  very  straight- 
grained  and  free  from  knots,  it  is  valuable 
for  joiners'  work,  when  a  stronger  wood 
than  yellow  pine  (described  in  the  previous 
paragraph)  is  required.  It  is  more  ex- 
pensive than  Baltic  fir,  consequently  is  not 
so  largely  used  in  England.  Red  pine  has 
of  late  years  been  used  rather  extensively 
owing  to  the  scarcity  of  good  yellow  deal 


and  the  high  price  of  yellow  pine.   The  cost 
is  about  the  same  as  Gromoff. 

American  White  Spruce. — This  is  very 
like  Baltic  white  timber,  but,  not  being 
equal  to  it  in  durability  or  strength,  it  does 
not  command  such  a  large  sale  as  the  Baltic 
white  timber.  It  is  the  produce  of  two 
different  trees,  the  Abies  alba,  or  white 
spruce,  and  the  Abies  nigra,  or  black  spruce, 
so  named  from  the  colour  of  their  bark  ; 
the  colour  of  the  wood  is  white  in  both 
cases.  The  black  spruce  timber  is  far  better 
than  the  white,  is  more  plentiful,  and  grows 
to  a  greater  size.  ^ 

Elm. — Common  English  elm  {Ulmus 
camfestris)  is  of  a  reddish  brown  colour 
with  light  sapwood,  the  grain  being  very 
irregular  and  there  being  numerous  small 
knots.  It  warps  and  twists  freely,  but  is 
very  durable  if  kept  constantly  under 
water  or  constantly  dry,  but  it  will  not 
bear  alternations  of  wet  and  dry.  One 
peculiarity  characteristic  of  elm  is  that  the 
sap  turns  white  and  becomes  foxey,  and 
decays  quickly.  It  is  used  for  coffins,  piles 
under  foundations,  pulley  blocks,  stable 
fittings,  etc.    It  is  chiefly  home-grown. 

American  Elm. — ^The  wood  generally 
known  as  American  elm  is  one  of  the  United 
States  timbers  {Ulmus  Americana,  L.) 
locally  known  as  white  elm,  or  water  elm. 
The  wood  is  highly  valued,  has  many  proper- 
ties similar  to  those  of  American  rock  elm 
Ulmus  racemosa  Thomas) — though  not, 
perhaps,  quite  so  tough  as  that  timber 
— and  is  very  extensively  used  in  cooperage, 
saddlery,  axe-helves,  etc.,  and  wagon-  and 
boat-building.  The  tree  which  furnishes 
the  wood  grows  to  large  dimensions,  and 
is  widely  distributed  over  all  the  States  east 
of  the  Mississippi  River. 

Pitchpine. — This  is  Pinus  Australis  or 
Pinus  resinosa,  and  is  recognised  by 
its  weight  and  strong  reddish  yellow  grain, 
with  distinct  and  regular  annual  rings.  It 
must  be  well  seasoned  and  free  from  sap  and 
shakes.  Pitchpine  is  very  free  from  knots, 
but  when  they  occur  they  are  large  and 
transparent,  and  give  variety  to  the  grain. 
It  is  used  chiefly  for  treads  of  stairs  and 
flooring,  on  account  of  its  hardness  and  wear- 
resisting  qualities ;  for  doors,  staircases, 
strings,  handrails,  and  balusters  on  account 


48 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


of  its  strongly  marked  and  handsome  grain  ; 
for  open  timber  roofs  on  account  of  its 
strength  and  appearance  ;  and  for  outdoor 
carpentry,  such  as  jetties,  on  account  of  its 
length  and  size.  The  ornamental  grain  of 
pitchpine  is  due  to  the  annual  rings,  not  the 
medullary  rays  as  in  oak.  and  the  method 
of  sawing  oak  will  therefore  not  suit  at  all. 
The  object  should  be  to  cut  as  many  boards 
as  possible  tangent  to  the  annual  rings. 
About  one  log  in  a  hundred  will  show  more 
or  less  waviness  of  the  grain  owing  to  an  ir- 
regular growth  in  the  tree,  and  about  one  in 
a  thousand  will  be  worth  very  careful 
conversion.  To  avoid  turning  the  log  so 
often  in  cutting  the  boards,  as  in  Fig.  137  (p. 
35),  they  might  be  all  cut  parallel,  so 
obtaining  a  greater  number  of  wide  boards 
but  not  of  such  good  figure,  the  grain 
showing  straight  lines  towards  the  edges 
instead  of  a  fair  pattern  throughout.  Careful 
and  complete  seasoning  would  be  required, 
on  account  of  the  great  shrinkage  occurring. 

Oak. — English  oak  (Quercus)  is  of  a 
light  brown  or  brownish  yellow,  close- 
grained,  tough,  more  irregular  in  its  growth 
than  other  varieties,  and  heavier.  Its 
tenacity  is,  say,  6J  tons  per  square  inch,  and 
its  weight,  55  lb.  per  cubic  foot.  Baltic  oak 
from  Dantzic  or  Riga  is  rather  darker  in 
colour,  close-grained,  and  compact,  and  its 
weight  is  49  lb.  per  cubic  foot.  Riga  oak 
has  more  flower  than  Dantzic.  American 
or  Quebec  oak  is  a  reddish  brown,  with  a 
coarser  grain,  not  so  strong  or  durable  as 
Eng'ish  oak,  but  straighter  in  the  grain.  Its 
tenacity  is  4  tons  per  square  inch,  and 
weight  53  lb.  per  cubic  foot.  African  oak 
is  not  a  true  oak.  Exposed  to  the  weather, 
oak  changes  from  a  Hght  brown  or  reddish 
grey  to  an  ashen  grey,  and  becomes  striated 
from  the  softer  parts  decaying  before  the 
harder.  In  presence  of  iron  it  is  blackened 
by  moisture  owing  to  the  formation  of 
tannate  of  iron,  or  ordinary  black  ink. 
Wainscot  Oak. — This,  known  also  as 
Dutch  wainscot,"  is  a  variety  of  oak.  It 
has  a  straight  grain  free  from  knots,  is 
easily  worked,  and  not  liable  to  warp.  In 
conversion  it  is  cut  to  show  the  flower  or 
sectional  plates  of  medullary  rays.  It  is 
used  for  partitions,  dados,  and  wall  panel- 
ling generally  ;  also  for  doors  and  windows 


in  high-class  joinery.  Its  sources  are  Hol- 
land and  Riga,  being  imported  in  semi- 
circular logs.  Wainscot  oak  obtained  from 
Riga  is  spoken  of  as  Riga  wainscot.  The 
term  "  wainscot "  describes  the  method 
that  is  adopted,  when  converting  the  log 
into  boards,  in  order  to  show  a  large  amount 
of  silver  grain  ;  such  ornamental  boards  are 
specially  suitable  for  wainscoting.  The 
oaks  that  grow  around  the  Baltic  are  closely 
related  to  those  that  grow  in  England. 
Quercus  robur  afiords  the  best  timber 
as  regards  strength  and  durability  under 
exposure,  though  some  of  the  other  varieties 
(as,  for  instance,  the  Quercus  sessiliflora, 
or  cluster-fruited  oak)  have  an  equally 
pretty  figure.  Riga  oak  is  not  held  in  such 
high  esteem  as  English  oak  for  outdoor 
work  and  for  purposes  in  which  great  ten- 
sile or  compressional  strength  is  necessary  ; 
but  as  the  medullary  rays  are  very  promin- 
ent, Riga  oak  affords  a  very  pretty  silver 
grain.  Riga  oak  may  be  the  wood  of  either 
of  the  two  varieties  of  Quercus  mentioned 
above. 

Chestnut. — The  chestnut  timber  used  for 
building  is  the  sweet  or  Spanish  chestnut 
{Castanea  edihilis),  not  the  common 
horse  chestnut,  which  is  a  whitish  wood  of 
but  little  use.  The  Spanish  chestnut  is 
grown  only  to  a  small  extent  in  Great  Britain 
at  the  present  time ;  it  may  be  known  by 
the  leaves  being  smoother,  more  parallel, 
and  not  radiating  so  decidedly  from  one 
stalk.  Spanish  chestnut  closely  resembles 
coarse-grained  oak  in  colour  and  in  texture, 
and  the  wood  in  all  its  stages  of  manufac- 
ture is  frequently  mistaken  for  oak.  The 
bark  of  the  log  is  like  oak  bark.  The  planks 
are  of  practically  identical  appearance,  and 
even  after  the  wood  is  dressed  up  the  like- 
ness is  still  very  close.  However,  when  the 
chestnut  is  old  it  has  rather  more  of  a  cin- 
namon caslj  of  colour,  has  less  sapwood,  and 
generally  a  closer  grain,  although  softer 
and  not  so  heavy  as  oak.  The  chief  dis- 
tinguishing characteristic  of  the  chestnut  is 
the  absence  of  the  distinct  medullary  rays 
which  produce  the  flower  in  oak  ;  and  old 
roof-timbers,  benches,  and  church -fittings 
may  be  discriminated  in  this  way,  also  by 
the  chestnut  being  more  liable  to  split  in 
nailing,  while  the  nails  never  blacken  the 


TIMBER 


49 


timber  as  they  do  in  oak  (see  p,  48). 
Reports  vary,  but  it  seems  to  be  decided 
that  the  roof  of  Westminster  Hall  is  of  oak, 
and  that  of  the  circular  part  of  the  Temple 
Church  of  chestnut.  Chestnut  is  largely 
used  in  cabinet  work  for  the  interior  fittings 
of  bureaux,  writing  cases,  etc.  Horse  chest- 
nut is  a  white,  even,  close-grained  wood, 
which  could  not  possibly  be  confounded  with 
Spanish  chestnut  when  the  difference  has 
been  once  pointed  out.  Horse  chestnut  is, 
however,  often  substituted  for  other  white 
woods  of  close  texture,  such  as  lime,  holly, 
and  sycamore,  and  is  the  inferior  material 
of  these  three  woods.  Horse  chestnut  warps 
and  twists  badly,  and  is  liable  to  turn  yellow. 
At  the  present  time  both  woods  are  largely 
used  in  fretwork.    Spanish  chestnut  was  for- 


Fig.  175. — Owner's  Mark  on  Teak. 

merly  used  in  conjunction  with,  and  also  as 
a  substitute  for  oak. 

Teak. — This  wood  {Tectona  grandis) 
is  generally  used  in  situations  where  red 
deal  and  other  similar  woods  are  liable  to 
decay  or  to  be  destroyed  by  worms,  but  its 
cost  prevents  it  from  being  used  extensively 
for  constructional  work.  In  the  construc- 
tion of  hothouses  it  would  be  a  decided 
advantage  to  use  teak  for  all  the  sills,  and 
for  any  parts  of  the  staging  that  are  likely 
to  be  alternately  wet  and  dry  ;  or  for  any 
timbers  that,  through  being  in  contact  with 
the  earth,  are  always  wet;  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  extra  cost  of  teak  would  be  re- 
paid if  it  were  used  for  all  the  woodwork  of 
the  house,  such  as  bars,  rails,  mullions,  etc. 
Teak  is  used  principally  for  staircases  and 
doors  in  public  buildings.  Being  considered 
more  fireproof  than  any  other  wood,  its  use 
is  enforced  by  district  surveyors  under  the 
Building  Act.  In  special  positions,  such  as 
those  enumerated  above,  where  it  is  not  prac- 
ticable to  paint  the  woodwork,  or  where,  as  in 
the  case  of  sills,  the  paint  becomes  worn  ofi, 
the  greasy  nature  of  teak  and  the  poisonous 
oil  that  it  contains  preserve  the  wood  from 
decay,  and  enable  it  to  withstand  the  attacks 
3 


of  the  spores  of  dry-rot  fungus,  without  any 
necessity  for  covering  the  surface  with  any 
protective  coating  of  paint,  varnish,  etc. 
As  the  life  of  a  piece  of  teak  under  such  con- 
ditions would  in  all  probability  be  three  or 
four  times  that  of  northern  pine,  it  may  be 
inferred  that  the  extra  initial  cost  is  com- 
pensated by  the  saving  in  repairs.  Teak 
logs  vary  generally  from  10  in.  to  24  in. 
square,  and  15  ft.  to  40  ft.  long.  When 
first  removed  from  the  ship  they  are  of  a 
good  cinnamon  brown  colour,  but  soon 
bleach  in  the  sun,  and  might  at  first  sight 

I  I  I  =  63   CUB.  FT. 

21   CUB.  FT. 


=    26  CUB.  FT. 


=    26  CUB.  FT.  ' 

=   16  CUB.  FT. 

Tig.  176.— Chalk  Marks  on  Logs  Showing 
Cubic  Contents. 

be  mistaken  for  oak.  They  are  stacked  in 
piles  according  to  the  ownership,  with  the 
butt  ends  flush  and  the  other  ends  irregular. 
A  few  business  cards  of  the  timber-broker's 
firm  are  generally  nailed  here  and  there. 
The  balks  are  squared  up  fairly  straight  and 
true,  but  sometimes  waney  at  top  end,  with 
heart  out  of  centre  owing  to  the  tree  having 
been  bent  during  growth.  The  ends  are 
stamped  with  the  mark  of  the  firm,  often 
in  two  or  three  places,  initial  letters  in  a 
heart,  as  in  Fig.  175,  standing  for  Messrs. 

 .    Also  with  the  number  of  the  log, 

and  alongside  it  a  mark,  thus  *,  or  the  word 
No.  preceding  the  figures  to  show  in  which 
direction  they  should  be  read.  The  dimen- 
sions of  the  log  are  stamped  in  1-in.  figures, 
thus  193  X  221  X  21  meaning  19  ft.  3  in. 
long  by  22 J  in.  wide  by  21  in.  thick.  The 
cubic  contents  are  marked  in  red  chalk,  as 
in  the  strokes  of  Fig.  176.  These  are  similar 
in  composition  to  the  quantity  marks  on 
Baltic  timber  ;  their  value  is  shown  added  in 


50 


CAEPENTPtY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  176.  After  the  logs  are  all  stacked, 
the  invoice  mark,  as  y'Hs>  and  number  of 
the  log  are  painted  on  the  end  of  each  with 
white  paint  to  identify  them  more  rapidly  ; 
and  on  the  end  of  a  log  showing  on  the  out- 
side of  the  stack  the  name  of  ship  and 
number  of  pile  are  also  painted.  The 
number  of  pile  and  name  of  ship  are  also 
painted  at  the  side  of  each  pile,  on  one 
of  the  logs,  as  in  Fig.  177.  The  principal 
teak  yard  in  London  is  at  the  South- 
West  India  Dock. 

Mahogany. — The  true  mahogany  (Sivietenia 
maJiogani)  is  a  dense,  hard,  strong  wood, 
of  straight  growth  and  close  texture, 
and  is  a  rich  brownish  red  in  colour,  with 
dark  wavy  markings ;  the  pores  are 
small  and  are  filled  with  a  chalk-like  sub- 
stance. The  weight  of  the  wood,  when 
dry,  should  average  about  65  lb.  per  cubic 
foot.    The  commoner  substitutes  for  true 


IE  n  r  ico  .  5 

Fig.  177.— Shipping  Marks. 

mahogany  are  numerous,  but  Honduras 
mahogany  (baywood)  and  Panama  maho- 
gany may  be  taken  as  examples.  The 
weights  of  these  kinds  of  mahogany  vary 
from  29  lb.  to  35  lb.  per  cubic  foot ;  hence, 
weight  is  evidently  one  of  the  surest  tests 
of  the  quality  of  mahogany.  Generally 
speaking,  these  commoner  varieties  are 
much  Hghter  in  colour  than  true  mahogany, 
and  are  without  the  fine  black  lines  running 
through  the  grain  that  form  one  of  the  dis- 
tinguishing characteristics  of  true  mahogany. 
The  hardness  of  true  mahogany  is  about 
twice  as  great  as  that  of  the  commoner 
kinds  ;  that  is,  the  best  mahogany  may 
be  taken  as  being  equal  in  wearing  power  to 
liornbeam,  while  the  inferior  kinds  would 
not  be  harder  than  Weymouth  pine.  A  large 
quantity  of  the  light  -  coloured  inferior 
mahogany  is  used  for  furniture,  etc.,  and 
after  having  been  treated  with  a  specially 


prepared  darkening  oil,  or  darkened  by 
some  other  method  and  polished,  in  no  way 
differs  in  appearance  (as  far  as  the  un- 
initiated can  judge)  from  the  best  kinds  of 
mahogany.  Light  weight  and  lack  of  resist- 
ance to  indentation  should,  however,  make 
one  suspect  the  quality  of  any  wood  that 
claims  to  be  true  mahogany.  However,  it 
may  be  said  that  "  Panama  mahogany " 
includes  several  useful  varieties  of  woods, 
to  this  class  belonging  St.  Domingo,  City 
St.  Domingo,  and  Cuba  mahoganies.  The 
grain  of  these  varieties  is  very  fine  and  even, 
and  the  surface  of  the  wood  is  lustrous,  and 
often  has  a  watered  or  satiny  appearance. 
These  varieties  of  mahogany  are  not  so 
dark  coloured  nor  so  dense  as  the  true 
mahogany  [Swietenia  mahogani).  Some 
of  the  most  prominent  timber  experts  state 
that  the  characteristics  of  the  various 
mahoganies  are  so  confusing  that  great 
difficulty  occurs  at  times  in  distinguishing 
one  variety  from  another  ;  in  fact,  some  go 
so  far  as  to  say  that  the  wood  that  is  sold 
and  known  commercially  as  Swietenia 
mahogani,  or  true  mahogany,  is  almost 
entirely  different  from  the  specimens  of  that 
wood  that  are  exhibited  at  Kew.  This  does 
not  prove  that  these  woods  are  in  any  way 
inferior  to  true  mahogany,  but  that  they 
are  obtained  from  another  and  an  entirely 
different  kind  of  tree.  Hence,  therefore,  * 
density  and  colour  are  two  important  factors 
that  should  be  considered  when  comparing 
one  variety  of  mahogany  with  another. 
Other  more  minute  points  of  difference  are 
only  apparent  when  the  wood  is  examined 
through  a  microscope.  The  term  "  Spanish 
mahogany  "  is  used  principally  in  connec- 
tion with  Cuban  mahogany,  but  sometimes 
St.  Domingo  mahogany  is  termed  Spanish 
mahogany.  The  term  is  at  best  but  a  vague 
one,  and  is  rarely  used  in  connection  with 
shipments  of  timber  that  arrive  in  this 
country  from  abroad.  In  such  cases  the 
cargo  is  usually  spoken  of  as  so  many  logs 
of  Cuban  (St.  Domingo,  Mexican,  or  other) 
mahogany.  In  a  general  sense  the  term 
"  Spanish  mahogany "  is  used  in  contra- 
distinction to  baywood  or  Honduras  ma- 
hogany. No  rule  or  regulation  states  pre- 
cisely that  Spanish  mahogany  must  fulfil 
certain  specified  conditions,  and  a  timber 


TIMBER. 


51 


merchant  may  fairly  claim  that  he  acts 
justly  by  his  customer  if  he  supplies  him 
with  a  moderately  dense,  sound  quantity 
of  Cuban  or  St.  Domingo  mahogany,  and 
has  not  supplied  him  with  baywood  (Hon- 
duras mahogany)  nor  any  of  the  many  other 
so-called  mahoganies,  the  marked  charac- 
teristics of  which  differ  widely  from  Cuban 
mahogany.  Such  spurious  mahoganies  are, 
for  example,  the  so-called  African  maho- 
gany (Khaya  Senegalensis)  or  the  wood 
that  is  known  as  Australian  mahogany 
{Dysoxylum  Fraserianum). 

Timbers  for  Various  Purposes. 

In  the  following  list  the  timbers  are  stated 
in  order  of  superiority  for  the  purposes 
named.  All  the  timber  should  be  specified 
according  to  the  precise  quality  required, 
and  not  merely  as  "  the  best." 

Dock  Gates. — Greenheart,  oak,  creosoted 
Memel.  The  specification  of  the  60-ft. 
entrance  lock  gates  at  the  Victoria  Dock, 
Hull,  provided  for  ribs,  heads,  and  heels  of 
single  squared  timbers,  either  of  English  oak 
of  the  very  best  and  quickest  grown  timber, 
or  of  African  oak,  but  no  mixture  of  the 
two.  The  planking  was  specified  to  be  of 
greenheart. 

Doors  External  for  Public  Buildings. — 
Oak  used  most  frequently,  next  in  order 
mahogany,  teak,  and  pitchpine. 

Doors  Internal  for  more  Important  Build- 
ings.— Oak,  mahogany,  teak,  walnut,  pitch- 
pine.  Other  hardwoods  are  also  used,  ac- 
cording to,  or  in  keeping  with,  other  internal 
fittings.  For  ordinary  buildings,  yellow 
deal  for  framing  and  yellow  pine  for  panels. 

Floor  Boards. — Oak,  pitchpine,  Stock- 
holm or  Gefle  yellow  deal ;  and  for  upper 
floors.  Dram  or  Christiania  white  deal.  For 
common  floor-boarding,  Swedish  or  Nor- 
wegian yellow  or  white  deal. 

Floor  Joists. — Russian  deals  make  the 
best  joists,  as  they  are  straight-grained  and 
free  from  knots,  sound  and  tough.  Baltic 
fir  is  cheaper  and  next  best.  Swedish  and 
Norwegian  not  reliable. 

Half-timber  Framing. — Oak  is  best,  as  it 
resists  decay  the  longest,  and  can  be  ob- 
tained naturally  shaped  in  curves  or  straight, 
as  may  be  required.  The  colour  and  tex- 
ture are  also  suitable  for  architectural  effect. 


Teak  is  good,  but  does  not  weather  quite  so 
good  a  colour  ;  it  is  apt  to  split  with  nail- 
ing.   Larch  is  next  best. 

Pile  Foundations. — Greenheart,  oak,  elm, 
creosoted  Memel,  alder.  Greenheart  is  un- 
doubtedly best;  but  the  cost  is  prohibitive 
except  for  marine  work,  where  it  is  some- 
times essential,  as  sea-worms  will  not  attack 
it.  Oak  is  next  best  when  it  can  be  afforded. 
Memel  fir  (Pinus  sylvestris)  in  13  in. 
to  14  in.  whole  timbers,  creosoted  or  in  its 
natural  state,  is  the  most  suitable  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  owing  to  its  con- 
venient size,  length,  and  general  character. 
Riga  fir  is  generally  too  small,  and  Dantzic 
fir  too  large  and  coarse.  Pitchpine  is  con- 
sidered suitable  by  some  ;  its  chief  advantage 
is  the  large  size  and  great  length  in  which 
it  may  be  obtained.  American  elm  and 
English  elm,  beech,  and  alder  are  suitable 
if  wholly  immersed,  but  not  otherwise. 

Planking  to  Earth  Waggons. — Elm,  with 
ash  for  shafts,  if  any. 

Roof  Trusses. — Oak,  chestnut,  pitchpine,. 
Baltic  fir  (Dantzic,  Memel,  or  Riga).  For 
tie-beams  to  open  timber  roof  40-ft.  span 
pitchpine  is  best,  as  it  can  be  obtained  free 
from  knots,  in  long  straight  lengths,  and 
the  grain  is  suitable  for  exposure  either 
plain  or  varnished.  Oregon  pine  is  suitable 
for  similar  reasons,  but  not  so  well  marked 
in  the  grain.  Riga  fir  is  good  material  for 
roof  timbers,  but  difficult  to  obtain  in  long 
lengths.  For  tie-beam  of  king-post  roof 
truss,  the  same  as  above,  or  pitchpine, 
if  it  is  to  be  wrought  and  varnished. 

Shop  Fronts. — Mahogany  is  the  favourite 
material,  and  weathers  well  if  kept  French 
poHshed  ;  black-walnut  and  teak  are  perhaps 
next  in  order. 

Treads  of  Stairs. — Oak,  pitchpine,  Memel 
fir,  ordinary  yellow  deal.  ^ 

Weather-boarding. — Oak  is  best  under  all 
circumstances,  but  is  expensive.  Larch 
{Larix  Europoea)  perhaps  stands  next,  as 
it  resists  the  weather  well  and  bears  nails 
without  splitting.  Ordinary  weather-board- 
ing consists  of  yellow  deal  from  various 
ports — say,  four  out  of  a  2J-in.  by  7-in. 
batten  or  3-in.  by  9-in.  deal  cut  feather- 
edged.  For  work  to  be  wrought  and 
painted,  American  red  fir  is  clean-grained 
and  cheap.    For  very  common  rough  work 


62 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


white  spruce  deal  may  be  used  as  being  the 
cheapest. 

Window-sills. — Oak  or  teak  for  best  work  ; 
occasionally  pitchpine  is  used,  but  it  is  not 
so  durable  as  either  of  the  former. 

Brands  and  Shipping^  Marks  on 
Timber. 

Simple  Explanation. — A  few  brands  and 
marks  have  already  been  illustrated,  but 
the  subject  needs  special  explanation,  there 
being  a  very  general  ignorance  as  to  the 
reasons  for,  and  meanings  of,  the  great 
number  of  marks  found  on  imported  timber. 
The  difficulty  of  identifying  parcels  of 
timber  consigned  in  the  same  freight,  or 
stored  in  the  same  place,  but  belonging  to 
different  owners,  was  no  doubt  the  original 
reason  for  the  introduction  of  a  marking 
system ;  the  extension  of  the  system  to 
marks  that  indicate  quality  was  the  natural 
sequel  to  the  marks  of  ownership.  There 
is  nothing  of  a  mysterious  or  cryptic  nature 
in  this  system  of  timber  marks,  nor  should 
the  various  marks  be  regarded  in  the  light 
of  a  secret  code  ;  the  great  increase  in  the 
number  of  manufacturers  and  the  conse- 
quent multiplication  of  brands  are  the  only 
causes  that  have  brought  about  any  ob- 
scurity that  may  be  thought  to  exist.  There 
is  also  generally  an  entire  want  of  organisa- 
tion, each  new  manufacturer  being  abso- 
lutely at  liberty  to  adopt  any  brand  or 
mark  that  he  may  think  fit  to  adopt ;  and 
though,  in  most  cases,  respect  is  paid  to  old- 
established  marks,  plenty  of  examples  of 
repetition  and  overlapping  exist.  Reduced 
to  simple  terms,  the  system  (if  system  it  can 
be  called)  resolves  itself  into  a  parallel  of 
the  imaginary  case  described  below,  John 
Brown  is  a  sawmill  proprietor  and  forest 
owner  in  Sweden.  He  manufactures  sawn 
wood  goods  for  the  English  market,  and  in 
order  to  distinguish  the  goods  produced  at 
his  mills  from  the  goods  of  other  sawmillers 
he  stamps  or  stencils  on  the  end  of  each 
piece  a  more  or  less  abbreviated  form  of  his 
own  name  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  uses 
variation  in  the  arrangement  of  the  letter- 
ing in  order  to  indicate  differences  in  quality. 
Thus  he  may  export  six  grades  or  qualities 
of  material : — 


The  1st  quality  may  have  J  B  on  the  end, 
2nd  „  '  „  „  J  B  N  „  „ 
3rd  „  „  „  J+BfN  .,  „ 
4th  „  „  „  J  *  B  *  N  „  ,. 
5th  „  „  „  J_B  — N  ., 
nnsorted       ,,  „     J  N  B  N  ,, 

or  if,  instead  of  firsts  and  seconds,  a  mixed 
grade  is  substituted  (consisting  of  mixed 
firsts  and  seconds),  the  mark  will  probably 
be  J  ^  B.  John  Brown  makes  no  secret 
of  these  marks,  and  would  gladly  inform 
any  inquirer  of  the  significance  (as  to  quality) 
of  any  given  brand.  In  fact,  he  is  at  much 
pains  to  advertise  the  fact  that  these  classes 
of  material  are  manufactured  by  him,  and 
that  the  above  arrangement  of  initials  is 
to  be  taken  as  an  indication  of  the  compara- 
tive qualities  of  the  stuff.  The  two  real 
examples  given  below  will  show  how  the 
matter  works  out  in  practice. 

Holmsunds  Marks. — The  Holmsunds  Ak- 
tiebolag  (Holmsunds  Share  Company)  manu- 
facture and  export  sawn  goods  and  planed 
goods  from  Holmsunds,  Sweden,  and  the 
following  is  their  advertised  quality  code  : — 

Sawn  Goods. 

Mixed    H  D 

Thirds    HDD 

Fourths   H    N  D 

Fifths    H     F  D 

Sixths    H    M  S 

Inferior  Sixths   H  S  U  S 

Planed  Goods. 

Firsts    H  S  ^  N  D 

Seconds   H  S  *  N  D 

Thirds    H  L  N  D 

Fourths   H  L  D 

Unsorted  (Sawn  or  Planed)  ...  H  S  U  N  D 

Here,  obviously,  the  word  Holmsunds  has 
been  made  use  of  as  the  base  for  quality 
variations. 

Wifsta  Warfs  Marks.— The  Wifsta  Warfs 
Bolag,  a  sawmilling  firm  in  the  Sundswall 
district  of  Sweden,  exports  under  the  follow- 
ing marks  (also,  very  clearly,  derived  from 
the  name) : — 

Mixed    WWB 

Thirds    WSW 

Fourths    W  T  W 

Fifths    W  F  vv 

Sixths    WWW 

Unsorted    WWWW 


TIMBER. 


53 


A  fact  that  should  be  noted  with  respect  to 
Swedish  goods  is  that  where  a  mixed  grade 
is  shipped  usually  no  separate  firsts  and 
seconds  are  exported,  as  these  best  qualities 
are  not  sorted  from  one  another. 

List  of  Marks. — In  the  same  way  nearly 
all  other  firms  in  the  Baltic  and  Norway  trade 
make  use  of  some  simple  method  of  signify- 
ing qualities,  in  which  the  initials  of  the 
head  of  the  firm  or  of  the  company  (where 
a  company  is  in  proprietorship)  form  the 
chief  distinguishing  features.  Obviously, 
therefore,  no  universal  key  can  exist  that 
will  at  once  make  clear  all  details  as  to 
quahties,  port  of  shipment,  etc.,  except  it 
be  in  the  nature  of  a  long  list  of  names  and 
addresses  of  manufacturers,   and   of  the 


initials  and  symbols  that  are  peculiar  to 
the  productions  of  each.  Such  a  list  has 
been  compiled,  and  is  in  general  use  by 
timber  merchants  and  all  connected  in  any 
way  with  the  timber  trade ;  it  contains 
upwards  of  two  thousand  marks  and  brands. 
One  of  the  essentials  of  such  a  work  is  that 
it  should  be  kept  up  to  date,  as  new  firms 
and  symbols  are  constantly  appearing  on 
the  market,  while  others  fall  off  from  time 
to  time.  Lastly,  the  marking,  when  applied 
to  logs,  assumes  several  new  characters  ; 
it  may  be  said  that  frequently  group 
numbers,  cutting  numbers,  private  sub- 
owner  numbers,  and  marks,  contents  marks, 
and  even  dates,  are  sometimes  placed  on 
the  ends  and  sides  of  logs; 


JOINTS. 


Introduction. — Full  instructions  on  setting  to  provide  a  collection  of  illustrations  handy 

out,  cutting,  and  fitting  most  of  the  joints  for  reference,  so  that  the  present  treatment 

used  in  carpentry  and  joinery  are  given  in  of  technical  woodworking  may  not  be  in- 

the  companion  volume,  "  Woodworking,"  complete. 


Halving.  Dovetail  Halving.         Fig.  185.— Single  Notching. 


Fig.  186. — Double  Notching. 


Fig.  187.— 
Dovetail  Notching, 
Wedged. 


Fig.  188.— Dovetail  Notching. 


and  the  reader  is  assumed  to  be  familiar  with  Joints  in  Carpentry, 

all  these  processes.  The  object  of  the  Halved  Joints. — The  simplest  joints  used 
present  chapter  is  merely  to  present  brief  in  carpentry  are  the  various  forms  of 
particulars  of  the  joints  in  general  use  and     halving  :    simple  halved  joints  (Figs.  178 

54 


JOINTS. 


55 


Fig.  189.— Tredgold 
Notching. 


Fig.  192.— Bridle  Joint. 


Fig.  195. — Stump  or  Stub 
Tenon. 


Fig.  190.— Cogging. 


Fig.  193.— Oblique  Bridle  Joint. 


Fig.  196. — Shouldered  Tenon. 


Fig.  191. — Bird's-mouthed 
Joint. 


Fig.  194.— Dowelled 
Post  and  Sill. 


Fig.  197.— Divided  Tenon. 


Fig.  198.— Inserting  Tenon  in  Chase  Mortise. 

to  181),  dovetail  halving  (Fig.  182),  bevelled 
halving  (Fig.  183),  and  shouldered  dovetail 
halving  (Fig.  184). 


Notched  and  Other  Joints. — Of  the  many 
forms  of  notching  there  are  :  single  notch- 
ing (Fig.  185),  double  notching  (Fig.  18(3), 
dovetail  notching  (Figs.  187  and  188),  and 
Tredgold  notching  (Fig.  189).  Cogging  is 
shown  bv  Fig.  190,  the  bird's-mouthed  joint 
by  Fig.  "191,  the  bridle  joint  by  Figs.  192 
and  193,  and  dowelling  of  wood  to  stone  by 
Fig.  194. 

Tenon  Joints  (Carpenters'). — Of  tenon 
joints  there  is  the  stump,  or  stub  tenon  (Fig. 
195)  ;  the  shouldered  tenon  (Fig.  196)  ; 
the  divided  tenon  (Fig.  197)  ;  the  chase 
mortise  (Fig.  198),  in  the  side  of  a  timber, 
with  one  cheek  cut  away  and  the  depth 
gradually  tapering  out  to  the  face  of  the 


56 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig,  199. — Section  of  Tusk  Tenon  Joint 


Fig. 


200.— Parts  of  Tusk- 
tenoned  Joint. 


timber.  It  is  used  in  framed  and 
doubled  floors,  for  enabling  short 
joists,  such  as  ceiling  joists  between 
the  binders,  to  be  got  into  place  after 
the  larger  timbers  are  fixed,  as  shown 
in  the  illustration.  The  tusk  tenon  is  shown 
by  Figs.  199  to  201  ;  struts  tenoned  into 
the  heads  of  king-  or  queen-posts  are 
shown  by  Figs.  202  to  204. 


Fig.  201.— 
Wedged  Tusk  Tenon  Joint. 


Toe  Joints. — Simple  toe  joints  are  shown 
by  Figs.  205  and  20(3,  and  a  toe  joint  with 
tenon  by  Fig.  207. 

Gantry  Strut  Joints. — Bird's -mouth  and 


1'.; 

Fig.  202.  Fig.  203.  Fig.  204. 

Fig.  202. — Strut  Tenoned  into  King-  or  Queen-Post. 

Fig.  203. — Principal  Rafter  Tenoned  into  Queen- 
Post,  Straining  Beam  Joggled  into  same. 

Fig.  204. — Principal  Rafters  Tenoned  into  King- 
Post. 


Fig.  205.— Toe  Joint 
between  Principal 
Rafter  and  Strut. 


Fig.  206.— Toe  Joint 
between  Vertical 
Post  and  Strut. 


mitred  butt  joints  for  a  gantry  strut  are 
shown  by  Figs.  208  and  209  respectively. 


JOINTS. 


57 


Fig.  209. 


Fig.  208. — Bird's-mouth  Joint  between  Strut  and 
Straining  Piece,  or  Head. 

Fig.  209. — Mitre  Butt  Joint  between  Straining 
Piece  and  Strut. 


Fig.  207.— Toe  Joint  with  Tenon. 


-^^^^ — V- 

Fig.  210. — Dovetailed  Halving  Bolted. 


Fig.  211. — Common  Fished  Joint. 

-fife 


Fig.  212. — Lapped  Joint  with  Keys  and  Straps. 

-A  A 


Fig.  214.— Tabled  Joint. 


Fig.  213.— Raking  Scarf  with  Butt  End. 


Fig.  215.— Tabled  Scarf  with  Folding  Wedges. 

A  ^  ^  A- 


Fig.  216.— Tabled  and  Splayed  Scarf. 
■  A-^  A  -A  A 


Fig.  217. — Indented  Beams  for  Lengthening  and 
Strengthening. 


Fig.  218.— Splayed  Scarf  with  Folding  Wedges. 


Fig.  219. — Fishpd  Joint  with  Oblique  Keys. 


Fig.  220.— Fished  and  Tabled  Joint. 

Joints  for  Lengthening  Beams  and  Posts. 

— A  joint  suitable  for  tension  only  is  the 
dovetailed  halving  (Fig.  210).  A  joint 
suitable  for  compression  only  is  the  common 
fished  joint  (Fig.  211).  Joints  suitable  for 
cross  strain  only  are  as  follows  :  Lapped, 
with  keys  and  straps  (Fig.  212),  and  the 
raking  scarf  with  butt  end  (Fig.  213). 
Joints  suitable  for  tension  and  compression 
are  as  follows  :  Tabled  (Fig.  214),  and  the 
tabled  scarf  with  folding  wedges  (Fig.  215). 


Fig.  221.— Fished  and  Tabled  Joint. 

Joints  suitable  for  tension  and  cross  strain 
are  as  follows  :  Tabled  and  splayed  scarf 
(Fig.  216),  indented  beams  for  lengthening 
and  strengthening  (Fig.  217),  and  the  splayed 
scarf  with  folding  wedges  and  iron  plate 
covering  joint  on  tension  side  (Fig.  218).  A 
joint  suitable  for    compression   and  cross 


68 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  222.— Tabled  Scarf  with  Keys  and  Plates. 

A  ^  a. 


Fig.  224.— Fished  Joint  with  Hardwood  Keys. 


Fig.  226.— Dovetail  Splayed  Joint 


Fig.  229.— 
Vertical  Scarf. 


Fig.  232.— 
Parallel  Scarf 
with  Joggled 
Ends. 


Fig.  230. 


Fig.  231.— 
Double  Forked 
Joint  Apart. 

Fig.  230.— 
Double  Halved 
or  Double 
Forked  Joint 
Together. 


Fig.  233.— 
Splayed  Scarf. 


strain  is  the  fished  joint  with  obhque  keys 
(Fig.  219).  Joints  suitable  for  tension, 
compression,  and  cross  strain  are  as  follows  : 
Fished  and  tabled  (Figs.  220  and  221); 
tabled  scarf,  with  keys  and  plates  (Fig.  222)  ; 


Fig.  223.— Fished  Joint,  Keyed  and  Bolted. 


Fig.  225. — Splayed  Scarf  with  Folding  Wedges 
and  Iron  Fish  Plates. 


Fig.  227. — Dovetail  Scarf. 


Fig.  228. — Raking  Scarf  used  for  Ridges,  etc. 


Fig.  234.— Single  Fished 
Butt  Joint  when  Post 
is  Braced. 


Fig.  235.— Double  Fished 
Butt  Joint  for  Detached 
Post. 


fished,  keyed,  and  bolted|(Fig.  223)  ;  fished, 
with  hardwood  keys  (Fig.  224)  ;  and  the 
splayed  scarf  with  iron  fish  plates  and  bolts 
(Fig.  225),  which  is  used  in  the  warehouses 
at  the  South-West  India  Dock,  London. 
Other  joints  used  for  lengthening  plates 
and  ridges  are  shown  at  Figs.  226,  227,  and 


JOINTS. 


59 


228.  Joints  for  beams  and  posts  are  :  the 
vertical  scarf — a  halved  joint  (Fig.  229), 
double  halved  joint  (Figs.  230  and  231), 
parallel  scarf  with  joggled  ends  (Fig.  232), 
splayed  scarf  (Fig.  233),  single  fished  butt 
joint  when  the  post  is  braced  (Fig.  234), 
and  the  double  fished  butt  joint  (Fig.  235) 
when  the  post  is  detached. 


say  10  in.  by  3  in.  The  joint  may  also 
shear  across  b  c  or  g  f,  therefore  section  at 

B  c  or  G  F  must  equal        =  277,  say  28  in. 

by  10  in.  The  joint  may  also  be  crushed 
at  B  D  or  G  H,  therefore  section  at  b  d  or  g  H 

must  equal        =  36,  say  10  in.  by  3J  in. 


Fig.  236.— Tabled  Scarf  Joint. 


Rule  for  Proportioning  Parts  of  Sc^rf. — 

Tredgold  gives  the  following  practical  rules 
for  proportioning  the  different  parts  of  a 
scarf  according  to  the  strength  possessed 
by  the  kind  of  timber  in  which  it  is  formed, 
to  resist  tensional,  compressional,  or  shear- 
ing forces  respectively.  In  Fig.  236  c  d 
must  be  to  c  6  in  the  ratio  that  the  force 
to  resist  detrusion  bears  in  the  direct 
cohesion  of  the  material — that  is,  in  oak, 
ash,  elm,  c  d  must  be  equal  to  from  eight 
to  ten  times. c  6  ;  in  fir  and  other  straight- 
grained  woods  c  d  must  be  equal  to  from 
sixteen  to  twenty  times  c  b.  The  sum  of 
the  depth  of  the  indents  should  be  equal  to 
one  and  one-third  depth  of  beam.  The 
length  of  scarf  should  bear  the  foUow^ing 
proportion  to  the  depth  of  the  beam  : — 


Wood  Used 

Without  bolts 

With  bolts 

With  bolts 
and  indents 

Hardwood  (oak,  ash, 

elm) 

6  times 

3  times 

2  times 

Fir    and  other 

straight  -  grained 

woods 

12  „ 

6  „ 

4 

Calculation  of  a  scarfed  joint  with  folding 
wedges  as  Fig.  237  : — 

Per  sq.  in. 

=     12  cwt. 
=     10  ,, 
—  1-3 


Working  resistance  to  tearing  . . 
,,  compression 
, ,  , ,  shearing . . 


Load  equals,  say,  360  cwt.  direct  tension 
beyond  that  taken  by  bolts  or  plates.  The 
joint  may  tear  across  a  b  or  d  e  (Fig.  237), 

360 


Thus  the  beam  should  be  about  10  in.''  by 
10  in.,  with  wedges  as  shown  ;  but  in  ordinary 
practice  the  folding  wedges  do  not  exceed 
one-fourth  the  depth  of  the  beam,  and  are 
usually  placed  square  to  the  rake  of  the 
scarf,  the  scarf  being  further  strengthened 
by  bolts  and  plates. 

Strength  of  Joints  in  Struts  and  Beams. — 
If  two  deals  are  bolted  together,  with  dis- 
tance pieces  between,  they  will  be  stronger 
than  a  solid  timber  strut  of  the  same  sec- 
tional area,  because  the  dimension  of 
"  least  width  "  in  the  formula  for  calcula- 
tion of  strength  will  be  increased.  There 


therefore  section  at  a  b  must  equal 


12 


30, 


Fig.  237.— Splayed  Scarf  with  Folding  Wedges. 

would  be  no  appreciable  advantage  in 
making  the  distance  pieces  of  different  thick- 
nesses, to  swell  or  reduce  the  middle  dia- 
meter ;  they  should  be  all  alike,  and  enough 
to  make  the  combined  thickness  not  less 
than  three-fourths  of  the  width  of  the  deals, 
and  the  distance  apart  in  feet  should  be 
equal  to  the  length  of  the  deal  in  feet  mul- 
tiplied by  its  thickness  in  inches  and  divided 
by  the  width  in  inches.  Single  J-in.  bolts 
are  of  no  use  in  rough  carpentry,  except  for 
very  small  work  ;  instead,  two  |-in.  bolts 
should  be  placed  diagonally  through  each 
block.  Horizontal  connecting  rods  in 
machinery  are  sometimes  swelled  in  the 
middle  to  allow  for  the  cross  strain  upon 


60 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Figs.  238  and  239. — Con- 
necting Post  and  Beams 
by  Tenoning  and  Cog- 
ging. 


i 

Fig.  245.— Upper  Portion  of 
Framing  of  Ordinary  Staging. 


Fig.  238.  Fig.  239.-^^ 


Figs.  240  and  241.  —  Securing  Joints 
between  Post  and  Beams  by  Straps  and 
Bolts. 


Fig.  246.— Detail  of  Form  of 
Staging  stronger  than  that 
shown  by  Fig.  245. 


Fig.  242 


Figs.  242  and  243.— Joints  and  Fastenings  be- 
tween Post,  Corbel  and  Beam  for  Heavy  Stage. 


Fig.    247.— Upper  Portion  of  Staging  Support- 
ing Heavy  Loads  ;  Head  Beam  Halved  and  Bolted 
to  Corbel. 


JOINTS. 


61 


them'  in  addition  to  the  end-long  strain, 
while  vertical  struts  have  no  cross  strain 
to  meet. 


the  pieces  are  put  together  the  joint  is 
masked  by  the  bead,  and  the  tongue  pre- 
vents dust  and  draught  from  passing 
through,  as  in  Fig.  263.  A  slip  feather  is 
a  piece  of  wood  inserted  in  plough  grooves, 
as  in  Fig.  260,  to  strengthen  a  glued  joint, 
or  to  keep  out  the  dust. 
It  may  be  of  soft  wood, 
and  is  then  in  short  lengths, 
made  by  cutting  pieces 
1  in.  wide  off  the  end  of 
a  plank,  turning  the  pieces 
over,  and  cutting  them  into 
thin  strips,  with  the  grain 
across  their  length.  If  hard 
wood  is  used,  the  grain 
may  run  in  the  direction 
of  the  length.  The  slip  feathers  may  also 
be  double,  or  dovetailed. 


Fig.  248. — Conventional 
View.'of  Staging  with  Head 
Beam  Halved  and  Bolted 
to  Corbel. 


Jointing  Beams  to  Posts  and  Struts. — 

The  usual  methods  of  forming  joints  between 
beams,  posts,  struts,  and  braces  as  used  in 
the  construction  of  gantries,  stagings,  jetties, 
bridges,  etc.,  are  illustrated  by  Figs.  238  to 
254.  The  inscriptions  to  the  illustrations 
make  the  methods  quite  clear  to  under- 
stand. 

Joints  in  Joinery. 

^Edge  Joints. — Eleven  joints  used  in  con- 
necting boards  edge  to  edge  are  shown  by 


Fig.  249.  Fig.  250. 

Fig.  249. — Strut  and  Post  Joint  Supported  by 

Cleat  Spiked  to  Post. 
Fig.  250. — Brace  and  Post  Joint.    Brace  Tenoned 
into  Post  :  Cleat  Joggled  in  and  Spiked  to  Post. 

Right  Angle  Joints. — Fourteen  styles  of 
angle  joints  are  showm  by  Figs.  266  to  279. 

Obtuse  Angle  Joints. — Four  kinds  of  these 
joints  are  illustrated  by  Figs.  280  to  283. 


Fig.  251.  Fig.  252. 

Fig.  251.— Mitred  Butt  and  Tenoned  Joint  between 
Brace  and  Straining  Piece. 

Fig.  252. — Double  Abutment  Joint  between  Strut, 
Head,  and  Straining  Piece. 

Figs.  255  to  265.  Matchboarding  is  thin 
stuff  with  a  tongue  and  bead  worked  on  one 
edge  and  a  groove  on  the  other,  so  that  when 


Fig.  253.  Fig.  254. 

Fig.  253. — Treble  Abutment  Joint  between  Strut 

and  Straining  Piece. 
Fig.  254. — Tenoned  and  Bird's-mouth  Shouldered 
Joint  between  Strut  and  Straining  Piece. 

Dovetail  Joints. — These  are  known  in 
great  variety,  but  it  will  be  sufficient  to 
show  a  few  kinds  only  :  the  ordinary  dove- 


62 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  255.— Edge  Butt  Joint. 


Fig.  257. — Rebated  and  Filleted  Joint. 
Fig.  259. — Rebated,  Grooved,  and  Tongued  Joint. 


Fig.  261. — Dovetail  Slip-feather  Joint. 


Fig.  256. — Rebated  Joint. 


Fig.  258. — Grooved  and  Tongued  Joint. 


Fig.  260. — Ploughed  and  Cross  Tongued  Joint. 
Fig.  262. — Matched  and  Beaded  Joint. 


Fig.  263. — Matched  and  Vee  Jointed. 


Fig.  265. — Dowelled  Joint. 

tailing  (Figs.  284  and  285),  lapped  dovetail 
(Fig.  286),  two  secret  or  double-lap  or 
rebated  dovetails  (Figs.  287  and  288),  and 
the  secret  mitred  dovetail  (Fig.  289). 
The  box  pin  joint  (Fig.  290)  is  not  a 
dovetail  joint,  but  has  some  of  the  latter's 


Fig.  264. — Splay-rebated  Joint. 

characteristics.  The  dovetail  ledged  and 
the  diminished  dovetail  ledged  are  shown 
respectively  by  Figs.  291  and  292. 

Dowelled  Joint. — The  ordinary  dowelled 
joint  is  represented  by  Fig.  293  ;  sections 
showing  a  dowel  fitted  incorrectly  and  cor- 
rectly are; represented  by  Figs.  294  and  295 
respectively.  A  right  angle  dowelled  joint 
is  shown  by  Fig.  296.  Allied  to  the  dowel 
joint  is  the  screwed  straight  joint  (Figs.  297 


Fig.  266.— Plain  Butt  Joint.       Fig.  267.— Rebated  Butt  Joint.       Fig.  268.— Plain  Mitre  Joint. 


Fig.  269. — Butt  Joint  Tongued,     Fig.  270. — Mitre  Joint  Tongued. 


Fig.  271.— Rebated  and  Mitre 
Joint. 


JOINTS. 


63 


Fig.  272.—  Fig.  273.—  Fig.  274.—  Fig.  275.— 

Mitred,  Grooved,  and       Rebated,  Mitred,  and    Rebated,    Tongued,    and     Rebated  and  Grooved 
Tongued  Joint.  Double-tongued  Joint.         Staff  Beaded  Joint.  Joint  to  Nosing. 


Fig.  276.—  Fig.  277.—  Fig-  278.—  Fig.  279.— 

Glued  Blockings.         Butt  Joint  with  Flush    Rebated  and  Staff  Beaded  Rebated,    Grooved,  and 

Beads.  Joint.  Staff  Beaded  Joint. 


Fig.  280.— 
Obtuse  Angle 
Grooved  and 
Tongued  Joint, 
with  Bead  to 
Break  Joint. 


Fig.  283.— 
Obtuse  Angle  Re- 
bated, Grooved, 
and  Staff  Beaded 
Joint. 


Fig.  281.— 
Obtuse  Angle 
Rebated  Joint. 


Fig.  282.— 
Obtuse  Angle 
Mitred,  Grooved, 
and  Tongued 
Joint. 


Fig.  284. — Box  Dovetail  Joint  formed 
by  Several  Boards. 


64 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  290.-BOX  Pin  Joint.  fig-  29l.-Dovetail  Ledged. 


JOINTS. 


65 


Fig.  300.— Sectional  View  of  Screwed  Joint. 


Fig.  298.  Fig.  299. 

Fig.  297. — Screwed  Joint  Complete. 
Fig.  298. — Screwed  Joint,  before  Sliding  into 
Position. 

Fig.  299. — Edges  of  Boards  to  be  Screw  Jointed. 

to  300)  ;  the  screw  heads  enter  the  holes 
bored  for  them,  the  edge  is  then  slotted  for 
about  I  in.  beyond  the  hole  to  allow  the 
stem  of  the  screw  to  pass  along,  the  head 
projecting  beyond  the  stem  forms  the  key, 
and  then  the  boards  are  merely  slid  together 
tightly,  so  forming  a  strong  joint  which  can 
be  taken  apart  easily. 


66 


CAKPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  302. — Open  Mortise  and  Tenon  Joint. 


lig.  306. — Pair  of  Single  Tenons  with  Grooves  Fig.  309. —  Fig.  310. — 

and  Slip  Feathers.  Pinned  Tenon.  Foxtail  Tenon. 


JOINTS. 


67 


Housing. — The  simple  housing  joint  is 
shown  by  Fig.  301. 

Tenon  Joints  (Joiners'). — Some  tenon 
joints  have  already  been  shown  under  the 
heading,  "Joints  in  Carpentry"  (p.  55). 
Further  tenon  joints,  more  especially  used 
in  joinery,  are  :  the  simple  open  tenon  and 
mortise  (Fig.  302) ;  closed  mortise  ,  and 
tenon  (Fig.  303) ;  pair  of  single  tenons, 
commonly  called  "  double "  tenons  (Fig. 
304) ;  double  or  twin  tenons  (Fig.  305)  ; 
pair  of  single  tenons,  with  grooves  and  slip 
feathers  (Fig.  306)  ;  haunched  tenon  (Fig. 
307)  ;  dovetail  tenon  (Fig.  308)  ;  pinned 
tenon  (Fig.  309).  Stump  or  stub  tenons 
and  tusk  tenons  are  also  used  in  joinery, 
and  have  already  been  illustrated  (Figs.  195 


311. — Foxtail  Tenons  with  and  without 
Housing. 


and  200,  pp.  55  and  56).  The  foxtail  tenon 
(Fig.  30)  is  a  good  joint ;  alternative  methods 
(with  and  without  housing)  of  applying 
this  in  fitting  rails  into  an  oak  gate-post  are 
shown  by  Fig.  311. 

Proportioning  Tenons. — There  is  no  uni- 
versal rule  for  proportioning  tenons,  but 
the  practice  is  to  give  from  half  to  the  whole 
of  the  width  of  the  rail,  when  this  does 
not  exceed  5  in.,  for  the  wudth  of  the  tenons. 
If  more  space  than  half  were  given  to  a 
haunched  tenon,  the  end  of  the  stile  would 
be  liable  to  be  driven  out  in  wedging  up, 
andllthere  is  no  reason  why  more  space 
should  be  given.  Wide  tenons  are  objection- 
able, owing  to  their  liability  to  shrink  from 
the  wedges  or  the  sides  of  the  mortises. 

Applications  of  Tenon  Joints. — With  re- 
gard to  the  application  of  the  various  tenon 
joints,  a  few  of  these  are  noted  below  : 
A  simple  tenon,  one-third,  thickness  of  the 


stuff,  is  used  in  framing  together  pieces  of 
the  same  size,  the  mortise  being  just  long 
enough  to  allow  of  a  wedge  being  driven  in 
on  each  side  of  the  tenon  to  secure  it.  A 
pair  of  single  tenons,  usually  called  a  double 
tenon,  is  used  for  connecting  the  middle 
rail  of  a  door  to  the  stiles.  A  haunched 
tenon  for  connecting  the  top  rail  of  a  door 
to  the  stiles ;  the  tenon  being  half  the  width 
of  the  top  rail  leaves  a  haunch  or  haunching 
to  prevent  the  rail  from  twisting.  A  stump 
or  stub  tenon  is  used  at  the  foot  of  a  post  to 
prevent  movement.  A  tusk  tenon  is  used 
in  framing  trimmers  to  trimming  joists,  to 


Fig.  312. — Hammer-headed  Key  Joint. 

obtain  the  maximum  support  with  the 
minimum  reduction  of  strength.  A  tenon 
with  only  one  shoulder  is  used  in  framed 
and  braced  batten  doors,  and  in  skyhghts, 
when  the  rail  requires  to  be  kept  thin  for 
other  parts  to  pass  over ;  this  is  known 
as  a  barefaced  tenon.  A  pair  of  double 
tenons  is  used  for  the  lock  rail  of  a  thick 
door,  to  receive  a  mortise  lock. 

Hammer-headed  Key  Joint. — A  conven- 
tional view  of  a  hammer-headed  key  joint 
apart  is  presented  by  Fig.  312. 

Special  Joints. — Many  other  joints  adapted 
to  particular  purposes  are  described  in 
subsequent  sections.  Reference  to  these 
may  easily  be  found  by  consulting  the 
index. 


FLOORS. 


General  Considerations. — The  remarks  in 
this  paragraph  will  be  found  applicable  to 
all  sorts  of  floors.  The  joists  should  be  laid 
across  the  narrowest  part  of  the  room,  and 
girders  and  binders  should  be  so  arranged 
as  to  take  a  bearing  on  a  solid  pier  or  wall, 


wet,  for  as  long  a  period  as  possible  before 
they  are  required  for  use.  Where  such  an 
arrangement  is  possible  it  is  well  to  have  the 
boards  laid  face  downwards  for  some  months 
in  the  position  they  are  to  occupy  before 
they  are  finally  nailed. 


Fig.  313. — Method  of  Supporting  Joists  round  Brickwork  Fender  in  Basement. 


and  not  over  door  or  window  openings.  In 
cases  where  a  long  distance  has  to  be  tra- 
versed by  a  joist,  which  is  supported  by 
one  or  more  girders  in  the  length,  it  should 
be  made  as  long  as  possible.  By  this  means 
the  strength  of  the  joist  is  greatly  increased, 
as  also  is  its  usefulness  as  a  tie  to  the  walls. 
Flooring-boards  should  be  cut  and  prepared, 
and  stacked  in  the  open  air,  with  free  ventila- 
tion all  round,  with  proper  protection  from 


Basement  or  Ground  Floors. 

The  floor  in  a  basement  storey,  or  on 
the  ground  level  where  there  is  no  base- 
ment, is  formed  of  joists  laid  on  wooden 
sleepers,  themselves  bedded  on  dwarf  walls 
(Figs.  313  and  314).  The  walls  and  sleepers 
are  usually  4  ft.  or  5  ft.  apart,  and  the  joists 
4  in.  to  6  in.  deep.  Occasionally  the  walls 
and  sleepers  are  further  apart,  and  then 
joists  6  in.  or  even  8  in.  deep  are  used.  Fig. 


FLOORS. 


69 


313  is  a  conventional  view,  and  Fig.  314  a 
section  through  a  floor  of  this  description, 
clearly  showing  how  the  joists  are  supported 
by  the  brick  fender  round  the  fireplace. 
Oak  is  considered  best  for  sleepers,  and  to 
ensure  of  its  being  thoroughly  seasoned, 


Single  Floors. 

The  simplest  floor  consists  of  a  row  of 
beams  or  joists,  varying  in  thickness  and 
depth  with  the  width  or  bearing  between 
the  walls  on  which  they  are  supported. 
To  the  upper  sides  of  these  joists  is  nailed 


Fig.  314.— Section  through  Basement  or  Ground  Floor. 


315. — Plan  of  Single  Floor  showing  Trimming  to  Fireplaces,  Well-hole, 


ship  oak  is  sometimes  specified.  Formerly 
it  was  the  practice,  more  so  than  at  present, 
to  notch  or  cog  the  joists  to  the  sleepers. 
When  the  joists  are  deep  enough,  rows  of 
herringbone  strutting  are  introduced,  as 
indicated  at  b  (Fig.  314),  cut  and  fixed  as 
shown  later  by  Fig.  317. 


the  floor-boarding,  and  to  the  under  side 
the  laths  which  carry  the  ceiling.  These 
joists  should  not  be  placed  at  a  greater 
distance  than  15  in.  from  centre  to  centre. 
An  ordinary  example  of  a  single  floor  is 
shown  at  Fig.  315,  this  figure  being 
the  plan  of  the  timber  of  a  floor  of  two 


70 


CAPvPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


rooms,  and  well-hole  for  staircase  for  a 
dwelling-house,  34:  ft.  from  front  to  back, 
and  20  ft.  v/ide  in  the  clear  ;  it  shows  also  the 
trimming  for  two  6-ft.  chimney-breasts  in 
flank-wall,  and  for  w^ell-hole  at  opposite 
flank  next  the  back  wall.    The  well-hole  is 


7  ft.  wide  and  12  ft.  long.  The  floor  is  con- 
structed to  carry  two  framed  partitions,  one 
18  ft.  from,  and  parallel  to,  the  front  wall, 
and  the  other  extending  from  this  partition 
to  the  back  wall  along  the  well-hole.  The 
middle  bearing  is  required  to  be  under  the 


Fig.  316.— View  of  Tusk  Tenon 
and  Keyed  Joint  to  Trimmers 
and  Joists. 


Figs.  318  and  319.— 
Alternative  Methods 
of  Halving  Joists  on 
Partition  Head. 


FLOORS. 


71 


first-mentioned  partition.  The  trimming 
joist  is  11  in.  by  3J  in.,  and  is  placed  18  in. 
from  the  chimney-breast.  The  short  trim- 
mers are  11  in.  by  3  in.  and  represented  not 
as  resting  in  the  party  wall,  but  as  being 
supported  on  iron  corbels  built  in  the  wall. 
Fig.  316  shows,  to  the  left,  an  isometric 
view  of  the  tusked  and  keyed  joint  to  the 
trimming  round  chimney-breast ;  to  the 
right,  it  shows  a  sectional  isometric  view 
through  joint  of  trimmer  and  tailing  joist. 
It  also  represents  the  kind  of  joint  that 


Figs.  323  and  324.— Alternative  Methods 
ot  Housing'^Joists  to  Trimmers. 


72 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


would  be  used  to  connect  the  staircase 
trimmer  and  joists  shown  in  well.  Fig.  317 
(p.  70)  gives  a  view  of  the  herringbone 
strutting  (2  in.  by  IJ  in.),  four  rows  of  which 
are  indicated  on  the  plan.  The  joists 
going  from  back  to  front  are  required  to  be 


T  R  1  M  M  1  N  C 

lO 

JOIST 

COMMON  OR 

B  R  1  DC  1  M  C  J 

O  1  5  T  5 

CC 

m 

hJ 

u 

O 

D 

Z 

z 

CQ 

CD 

Fig.  325.— Plan  of  Binder  or  Double  Floor. 


34  ft.  9  in.  long  ;  therefore  all,  or  the  greater 
part,  would  have  to  be  formed  of  two  lengths 
and  halved  on  the  middle  bearing  ;  alterna  - 
tive  methods  of  doing  this  are  shown  by 
Figs.  318  and  319. 


parallel  with  the  chimney-breast,  and  the 
trimmers  which  carry  the  joists  are  against 
the  sides  of  the  breasts.  Fig.  320  is  a  re- 
verse case,  there  being  only  one  trimmer, 
which  is  parallel  to  the  breast,  but  two  trim- 
ming joists,  these  being  at  right  angles  to 


Fig.  327, — Section  through  Binder  showing 
Bridging  Joists  Cogged,  and  Alternative  Methods 
of  Connection  with  Ceiling  Joists. 


it.  Fig.  321  is  a  section  through  the  trim- 
mer, hearth,  coach  head  brick  arch,  etc., 
shown  in  plan  at  Fig.  320.  s  (Fig.  321)  is 
a  feathered-edge  piece  of  board  (a  springing 
piece)  nailed  to  the  trimmer  for  the  arch  to 


SPLAYED  rlEADiNC 


•>OUaLt  ri-OOR      OR  IF    WITH     BINDERS   A  FRAMED  FLOOR 


Fig.  326.— Section  through  Joists,  showing  Side  of  Binder  supported  by  Wall. 


Trimming  Round  Opening:s. 

In  projections  where  fireplaces  and  flues 
(usually  known  as  chimney  breasts)  occur 
in  walls  it  is  necessary  to  trim  round  them, 
so  that  the  nearest  timber  in  front  shall  be 
at  least  18  in.  distant,  whilst  that  at  the 
sides  may  be  only  an  inch  or  so.  In  the 
plan  (Fig.  315)  the  trimming  joist  runs 


butt  against  ;  r  is  a  fillet  nailed  to  the  trim- 
ming joists  so  as  to  support  the  piece  of 
scantling  to  which  the  laths  are  nailed. 
This  construction  is  clearly  shown  at  b 
(Fig.  322).  When  a  trimmer  has  to  support 
an  arch,  to  prevent  any  likelihood  of  the 
arch  forcing  it  back,  one  or  two  iron  bolts 
are  inserted,  one  end  being  bedded  and 


1 


FLOORS. 


hooked  into  the  brickwork,  the  other  having 
a  screw  or  nut,  as  indicated  at  a  (Fig.  322). 
Figs.  323  and  324  show  alternative  simple 
methods  of  housing  short  joists  into  trim- 


mers. These  are  generally  adopted  in 
positions  where  there  is  not  sufficient  space 
to  allow  of  their  being  inserted  with  the 
usual  tusk  tenon.    Trimmers  and  joists  to 


328. — Binder  Chased-mortised  for  Ceiling 
Joists. 


Fig.  329. —  Ceil- 
ing Joists  con- 
nected to  Binder 
by  Fillet. 


Fig.  330. — Under  Side  of  Floor  with  Wrought  Binder. 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


which  they  are  connected  should  always  be 
thicker  than  the  ordinary  joists.  A  common 
rule  is  to  make  the  trimmers  and  trimming 
joists  J  in.  thicker  for  each  joist  carried. 
Single  floors  may  span  as  great  a  distance  as 
18  ft.  by  using  11-in.  by  3-in.  joists  stiffened 
with  two  or  three  rows  of  herring-bone  or 
solid  strutting. 

Double  Floors. 

When  the  distance  between  the  support- 
ing walls  exceeds  14  ft.  or  15  ft.,  it  is  usual 
to  place  binders  or  girders  of  wood  or  iron 
at  intervals  of  from  6  ft.  to  10  ft.,  and  on 
these  to  support  the  bridging  joists.  Floors 
so  constructed  are  known  as  double  floors, 
having  two  sets  of  joists,  the  lower  set 
(ceihng  joists)  being  smaller,  and  used  solely 
to  support  the  ceiUng.  Thus  the  ceiling, 
being  supported  independently  of  the  floor 
joists  above,  is  not  Hable  to  be  jarred  by 


LATH  *  PuiSTEiR  SEICTION  ACROSS  JOISTS 


Fig.  332. — Section  across  Bridging  Joists  showing  Method  of  Fixing 
Ceiling  Joists. 

the  trafEc  overhead,  and  the  connection 
between  the  ceiling  and  floor  being  broken 
by  the  space  between  the  two  sets  of  joists, 
sound  from  above  is  not  so  audible  below 
as  w^hen  the  floor  is  single. 

Wooden  Binders. — The  outline  plan  of  a 
double  floor  is  given  at  Fig.  325,  and  Fig. 

326  is  a  section  through  the  joists,  flooring, 
and  ceiling,  showing  the  side  of  the  bmder 
and  also  the  method  of  supporting  it.  Fig. 

327  is  a  section  through  the  binder  showing 
alternative  ways  of  connecting  the  ceihng 
joists  with  the  binder  by  mortise  and  tenon 
joints.  Ceiling  joists  which  have  to  be  got 
into  position  after  the  binders  are  built  in 
have  their  tenons  inserted  at  one  end  into 
an  ordinary  mortise,  whereas  the  tenon  at 
the  other  end  has  to  slide  into  a  chase 
mortise  as  indicated  at  Fig.  328.  To  avoid 
weakening  the  binder,  sometimes  a  fillet  is 
nailed  on  so  as  to  support  the  ceihng  joists, 
which  are  notched  to  it  as  shown  at  Fig. 
329.    Fig.  330  illustrates  the  case  where 


FLOORS. 


75 


ceiling  joists  are  not  used.    The  binder  is  sion  of  sound  would  be  lessened  by  sound 

wrought  and  stopped  chamfered  ;  the  laths  boarding  and  pugging  as  shown, 

for  the  ceiUng  would  be  nailed  to  the  under  Iron  Binders.— Two    sections  through  a 

edges  of  the  bridging  joists.    The  transmis-  double  floor  are  presented  by  Figs.  331  and 


Fig.  334.— View  of  Part  of  Under  Side  of  Floor  adjacent  to  Chimney  Breast. 


76 


CARPENTEY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  336. — Section  taken  Parallel  to  Steel  Binder  in  Double  Floor. 


m 
m 

( 

i 

m 

w, 

i 

Fig.  337. — Section  taken  at  Right  Angles  to  Section — Fig.  336. 


FLOORS. 


77 


332.  Just  above  the  lath-and-plaster  ceil- 
ing are  the  ceiHng  joists,  and  running  parallel 
with  these  is  a  10-in.  by  5-in.  rolled-iron 


Fig.  335  shows  a  method  of  mitreing  and 
fitting  an  oak  border  to  the  floor-boards 
ready  to  receive  the  hearth.    Figs.  336  and 


Fig.  339. 


-Steel  Binder  Projecting  Part  of  its 
Depth  below  Joists. 


Fig.  340. — Section  showing  Arrangement  to  avoid 
Binder  Showing. 


joist  (the  binder).  Fig.  333  shows  the 
general  construction  of  this  floor,  the  special 
feature  of  which  is  that  the  ceiling  joists 


337  are  sections  through  a  somewhat  similar 
floor,  but  of  a  more  ordinary  character,  the 
ceiling  joists  being  fixed  to  each  bridging 


y///yy////'.A^i:qm//^^ 


Y/ 


r 


Wmmm 


Fig.  341. — Plan  of  a  Framed  Floor,  showing  Girders,  Binders,  Joists,  Trimming,  etc. 


are  notched  to  and  supported  by  every  joist.  The  binders  are  of  rolled-iron  or 
fourth  bridging  joist,  which  are  stouter  and  steel  11  in.  deep  and  4 J  in.  w^ide  in  the 
deeper,  as  shown  at  a  and  b  (Fig.  334).     flanges  and  10  ft.  apart.    Fig.  338  illus- 


78 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Framed  Floors. 

The  plan  of  a  framed  floor,  45  ft.  by  26  ft., 
is  shown  at  Fig.  341.  Three  girders,  sup- 
ported at  their  centres  by  iron  columns, 
carry  the  binders  as  shown.  The  sizes  of 
the  various  members  are  :  Girders,  14  in. 
by  10  in.  sawn,  reversed,  and  bolted  with 
a  f-in.  rolled  flitch  in  the  centre  ;  binders. 


Fig.  342. — Section  through  Girder  and  Joists. 


Fig.  343. — Conventional  View  of  Girders, 
Binders,  Joists,  and  Head  of  Column 


trates  a  case  where  the  bridging  joist  rests 
direct  on  the  iron  binder,  solid  strutting 
being  inserted  between  the  joists  to  keep 
them  vertical.  The  ceiling  is  formed  of  either 
lath  and  plaster  or  match-boarding  fixed 
direct  to  the  joists,  the  binder  being  cased 
round  as  shown.  Fig.  339  illustrates  an 
arrangement  of  casing  the  under  side  of  a 
girder  or  binder  when  it  is  deeper  than  the 
joists.  If  constructed  as  shown  at  Fig.  340  a 
flat  ceiling  can  be  obtained  under  the  binder  ; 
but  this  construction  cannot  be  adopted 
when  the  iron  member  has  to  serve  as  a 
girder  for  floors  having  heavy  loads  to  carry, 
as  a  single  binder  would  not  be  deep  enough. 


Fig.  344,— General  View  of  Part  of  Framed  Floor. 


FLOODS. 


79 


in.  by  6  in.;   bridging  joiste,  6  in.  by     clear.    Figs.  344  to  346  are  details  of  a  double 
in.  ;  ceiling  joists,  3  in.  by  2  in.    Figs,     floor  for  a  smaller  span.    Figs.  345  and  346 
2  and  343  will  make  the  construction     are  views  taken  at  right  angles  to  each 


riRRlNG  P.IECE 


Fig.  345. — Section  taken  through  Girder  and  Joists. 
7  X  Ij   BOARDS  l"  X    NO  20.  HOOP  (RON  > 

BRIDGING    OR   COMMON  JOIST 


Fig.  346.— Section  taken  at  Right  Angles  to  Fig.  345. 


Fig.  347.— View  of  Under  Side  of  Framed  Floor,  with  Wood  Ceiling  and  Beams  Wrought 

and  Moulded. 


80 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


other.  Fig.  347  is  a  conventional  view 
showing  girder,  12  in.  by  10  in.  ;  binders, 
8  in.  by  6  in.  ;  bridging  joists,  8  in.  by 
2J  in.  ;    and  matchboard  ceiUng.  There 


ends  of  the  binders,  and  thus  they  are  well 
supported  without  the  girder  being  weak- 
ened. Two  different  forms  of  malleable 
iron  stirrups  are  illustrated  by  Figs.  348 


Fig.  348. — Binders  supported  on  Girders  by  Malleable  Iron  Stirrup. 


Tig.  349.— 
Another  Form  of  Stirrup. 


Fig.  350.— 
Wrought-iron  Stirrup. 


Fig.  351. — Method  of  Hanging  Ceiling  Joists  from  Bridging  Joists. 

being  no  ceiling  joists,  the  girders  and  binders  and  349,  and  one  of  wrought  iron  by  Fig. 

have  their  under-edges  moulded.    To  inter-  350.    A  system  of  supporting  ceiling  joists 

cept  sound,  the  floor  may  be  pugged  as  by  connecting  them  to  the  bridging  joists 

shown.    The  strength  of  wooden  girders  by  nailing  them  to  strips  of  wood  is  shown 

often  being  weakened  to  the  extent  of  one-  at  Fig.  351,  but  it  has  become  obsolete. 


Fig.  352.  Fig.  353. 

Figs.  352  and  353. — Beam  Trussed  with  One  Tension  Rod. 


eighth  by  being  mortised  and  housed  to  l^loors  with  Trussed  Beams, 

receive  the  binders,  various  forms  of  stirrup  In  warehouses  and  factories  where  there 
irons  have  been  introduced  to  carry  the     are  heavy  loads  and  vibration  the  girders 


FLOORS. 


81 


are  sometimes  strengthened  by  trussing. 
Various  methods  are  adopted.  Two  ways 
of  trussing  by  wrought-iron  rods  are  shown 
by  Figs.  352  to  358.  In  the  case  of  Fig.  352 
the  beam  is  sawn  down  the  middle,  ends 
reversed,  and  bolted  together  with  blocks 


Fig.  354.— Enlarged  View  of  End  A  (Fig.  352). 

between,  so  as  to  allow  of  the  iron  rod  passing 
through  the  iron  heel  plate  at  each  end 
(Fig.  354),  so  that  it  can  be  tightened. 
Figs.  356,  357,  and  358  illustrate  a  very 
strong  form  of  trussing  by  using  a  solid  beam 
and  a  tension  rod  on  each  side. 


(see  Fig.  317)  for  the  insertion  of  the  nails. 
A  great  advantage  in  this  form  of  strutting 
is  that,  although  the  joists  may  shrink  in 
thickness  and  depth,  the  strutting  remains 
firm  owing  to  the  greatest  shrinkage  taking 
place  in  depth.  This  will  be  made  clear  by 
Fig.  359.  Let  a,  b,  c,  d  represent  the  original 
position  of  the  strutting  ;  then  upon  shrink- 
age taking  place,  the  struts  move  about 


Fig.  355.— View  of  Cast-iron  Strut  B  (Fig.  352). 

their  centre  0,  and  tend  to  the  positions 
indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  a'  ¥  and  c'  d\ 
the  greatest  movement  being  produced  by 
the  depth  shrinkage  ;  thus  the  greater  this 
is  the  more  the  compression  on  the  struts, 
which   would   produce    greater  distances 


Figs.  356  and  357. 


Fig.  356.  Fig.  357. 

-Beam  trussed  with  Two  Tension  Rods, 


Strutting-. 

Herringbone  Strutting. — Cross-pieces  of 
wood,  about  2  in.  by  IJ  in.,  or  2  in.  by  2  in., 

are  frequently  fixed  between  joists,  as  al- 
ready shown  by  Figs.  315,  317,  and  332,  with 


358.— Enlarged  View  of  Cast-iron  Shoe  C 
(Fig.  356). 

the  view  of  strengthening  and  increasing 
the  rigidity  of  the  whole  fioor.  To  prevent 
splitting  at  the  ends  by  boring,  it  is  usual 
to  make  a  saw  kerf  at  each  end  of  the  struts 


between  the  joists,  were  it  not  for  the  floor 
boards  being  nailed  to  the  joists. 

Solid  Strutting. — When  pieces  of  board 
are  cut  and  simply  driven  in  tightly  between 
the  joists  and  nailed,  they  often  become 
loose  some  months  after  the  fioor  is  com- 
pleted, owing  to  the  shrinkage  of  the  joists 


Fig.  359.— Movement  of  Herringbone  Strutting 
produced  by  Shrinkage  of  Joists. 

in  thickness,  and  thus  they  are  of  very  little 
use  for  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  in- 
tended. Solid  strutting  is  a  most  valuable 
form  for  stiffening  and  strengthening  fioors 


82 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


of  warehouses,  etc.,  if  a  wrought-iron  bar  or 
tube  is  passed  through  each  joist  a  little 
above  its  centre.  The  bar  must  have  a 
thread  and  nut  at  each  end  working  against 
an  iron  plate,  so  that  the  struts  and  joists 
may  be  tightened  perfectly  close  to  each 
other.  A  view  of  this  arrangement  is  given 
at  Fig.  360. 

Supporting  Joists  by  Walls. 

Joists  are  now  often  supported  direct  by 
the  brickwork  or  masonry,  or  they  may  take 
their  bearing  on  a  tar  and  sanded  or  gal- 
vanised iron  bar.  Figs.  361  to  364  show 
four  general  methods  of  bedding  plates  for 
joists  in  or  upon  the  walls.  Fig.  364  shows 
the  plate  supported  by  iron  corbels  built 
in  the  walls.  So  that  the  plate  may  not 
project  below  the  ceiling,  sometimes  the 
joists  are  notched  down  to  bring  their  lower 
edges  level  with  the  under  side  of  the  plate  ; 
l)ut,  of  course,  this  weakens  the  joists. 


Fig.  360.— View  of  Solid  Strutting  and  Bolt. 


Determining-  Sizes  of  Joists. 

Common  joists  are  spaced  12  in.  apart, 
with  herringbone  strutting  every  4  ft. 
Dimensions  for  common  joists  are  as  follow  : 


Span  or  Length 

Depth  in  Inches. 

of  Bearing  in 

Feet. 

1|  in. 

2.1  in. 

2  in. 

3  in. 

thick. 

thick. 

thick. 

thick. 

6 

6 

f 

5i 

5 

8 

6i 

10 

8 

ll 

/ 

12 

8.^ 

8 

14 

104 

10 

94 

9 

16 

lis 

11 

lo: 

10 

The  nearest  available  size  should  be  used, 
and  2-in.  ceiling  joists  should  be  J  in.  deep 


per  foot  span.  The  trimming  joist  is  made 
\  in.  thicker  for  every  common  joist  carried 
by  the  trimmer.  A  rough  rule  used  some 
years  ago  was  to  fix  the  depth  of  the  joists 
at  one-sixteenth  of  the  clear  span,  or  j  in.  to 
each  foot  between  the  bearings.  The 
Ecclesiastical  Commissioners  prescribe  the 
size  of  joists  to  be  9  in.  by  2J  in.  for  12-ft. 
spans  and  12  in.  by  3  in.  for  18-ft.  spans.  A 
metropolitan  authority  has  fixed  upon  SJ 
in.  by  2J  in.,  and  llj  in.  by  2J  in.  for  the 


Fig.  361. — Joists  supported  by  Wall  Plate  built 
in  Wall. 

same  respective  bearings.  By  the  rough 
rule  of  one-sixteenth  the  distance  between 
the  bearings,  the  depth  for  an  18-ft.  span 
should  be  : — 


If,  however,  the  thickness  of  the  joist  is 
taken  to  be  3  in.,  the  strength  of  the  joist  will 
allow  for 

13-5-^  X  3  X  2-5 

 ^  =:  /  D  cwt. 

io 

central  breaking  load,  or 

~  =  121  cwt. 
b 

central  safe  load,  which  is  considerably  more 
than  is  required  (see  the  calculation  given 
below). 

Weight  on  Joists. 

The  weight  on  ordinary  joists  of,  say, 
18-ft.  span,  12  in.  deep,  and  3  in.  thick,  and 
1  ft.  3  in.  centres,  may  be  taken  to  be  as 
follows  : — The  superficial  space  carried  on 
the  joist  is  18  ft.  by  1  ft.  3  in.  =  22-5  sq. 
ft.,  and  this  covered  with  people  at,  say, 
84  lb.  per  square  foot  amounts  to  22*5  ft. 


FLOORS. 


83 


by  841b.  =1,890  lb. 

The  sound-boarding  and  pug- 
ging may  be  taken  at  100  lb.  per 
yd.  super.,  and  the  lath,  plaster, 
etc.,  at  80  lb.,  giving  a  total 
weight  of  180  lb.  per  yd.,  or  per 
1  SO 

ft.  super.   9    =  20  lb.  This 

multiplied  into  the  area  gives 

22-5  X  20  lb.  =  450 

The  floorboards 
will  be  18  ft.  by 
15  in.  by  li  in.   =  2'81  ft.  cube 
the  joists  18  ft. 
by  1  ft.  by  3  in.  =  4-50  ft.  cube 
7-31 

and  the  total  weight  of  timber 

will  be  7-30  ft.  by  35  lb.         =  257 

Thus  the  total  distributed 
weight  is  2,597 
2597 

This  is  equal  to         =  1,299  lb.  central  load, 

or  11*6  *cwt.  The  strength  of  the  joists 
under  this  load  will  be,  by  the  formula 


IJ  cwt.  per  ft.  super.,  churches  and  public 
buildings  IJ  cwt.,  and  w^arehouses  2 J  cwt. 
The  weight  of  the  structure  must  be  allowed 
for  in  addition  to  the  above  loads,  and  this 
is  most  important  to  bear  in  mind  in  con- 
nection with  fireproof  floors.  For  dwelling 
houses  the  IJ  cwt.  is  usually  made  to  include 
the  weight  of  the  floor  itself. 


already  given, 


12^ 


3  X 
18 


2-5 


=  60  cwt. 


breaking  load,  or 


60 


10  cwt.  safe  load. 


Estimating-  Load  on  Floors. 

Floors  should  be  estimated  for  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  building  and  the  probable 


Fig.  363.— Wall  Corbelled  Out  to  carry  Wall  Plate. 

Bridging  Joist  for  i8  =  ft.  Span,  Load 
I  cwt.  per  ft.  super. 

Let  it  be  required  to  determine  the  size  of 
a  bridging  joist  suitable  for  a  span  of  18  ft. 
and  capable  of  carrying  a  load  of  1  cwt.  per 
ft.  super.,  the  joists  fixed  12  in.  centre  to 


Fig.  362.— Joists  supported  by  Wall 
Plate  bedded  on  Set-off. 


Fig.  364. — Plate  carried  by  Wrought-iron  Corbels  built 
in  Wall. 


load.  A  crowd  of  persons  is  variously  esti- 
mated to  weigh  from  41  lb.  to  147*4  lb.  per 
square  foot  of  the  surface  covered.  Probably 
a  safe  average  would  be  1  cwt.  per  ft.  super, 
considered  as  a  live  load.  DwelHng  houses 
are  usually  designed  for  a  dead  load  of 


centre.  The  preliminary  calculation  will 
be  as  follows  :  (1)  The  total  weight  on  one 
joist  is  equal  to  the  load  on  the  half  space 
on  either  side  of  the  joist — that  is,  6  in. 
on  each  side.  Then  the  total  load  =  18  x 
1   ft.  x  1   cwt.  -  18   cwt.    (2)  The  load 


84 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


that  may  be  safely  carried  on  the  joist  is  a 
certain  fraction  of  the  breaking  weight 
— that  is,  of  the  load  that  would  break  the 
joist.  This  fraction  varies,  for  the  difierent 
purposes  for  which  the  scantling  is  to  be  used, 
from  one-fifth  to  one-tenth.  In  the  case 
of  floor  timbers,  where  the  joist  has  to  sus- 
tain a  live  load,  it  should  not  exceed  one- 
seventh  or  one-eighth  the  breaking  weight. 
In  the  example  given  above,  the  joist  has  to 
carry  a  load  of  18  cwt.  Hence  the  breaking 
weight  is  equal  to  18  x  8  =  144  cwt.  (3) 
The  breadth  or  thickness  of  the  joist  must 
bear  a  certain  proportion  to  the  depth  so  as 
to  be  satisfactory  as  regards  strength  and 
economy.  Let  this  proportion  for  a  bridg- 
ing joist  be  decided  by  the  formula  b  =  '3  d, 
where  b  =  the  breadth  and  d  the  depth — 
all  in  inches.  It  is  evident  that  the  joist 
in  such  a  case  must  be  considered  as 
strutted.  The  preliminary  calculations  as 
regards  the  joist  having  been  made,  a  for- 
mula applicable  to  every  case  for  calculating 
the  strength  of  timber,  no  matter  where  or 
for  what  purpose  the  scantling  may  be  re- 
quired, must  be  decided  on.  A  piece  of 
wood  of  the  same  kind  as  that  used  for  the 
joist,  and  1  ft.  long  by  1  in.  square,  loaded 
at  the  centre  till  it  breaks,  will  be  the  con- 
stant for  all  purposes  of  calculation  when 
dealing  with  the  same  material.  It  will  be 
found  that  the  strength  varies  directly  as 
the  breadth,  directly  as  the  square  of  the 
depth,  and  inversely  as  the  length  ;  this 
may  be  proved  by  increasing  the  breadth, 
length,  and  depth,  and  carefully  noting  the 
difference  in  the  loads  required  to  break 
the  beam  in  each  case.    Briefly,  the  formula 

chd 


may  be  stated  thus  :   B.W.  = 


-that 


is,  for  a  central  load.  But  a  floor-joist 
carries  a  distributed  load,  and  this  load  will 
be  found  to  be  equal  to  twice  the  load  it 
will  carry  when  centrally  loaded.  Then  the 
formula  will  be  : — 


B.W.  = 


2  c  h  cP 


114  = 


id  d' 


2  X  4  X  -Sd  X  d' 
18 

144  X  18 


.:d=  V1080      10  in.  nearly, 
and  6  =  -3  X     =  -3  X  10  =  3  in. 

Let  c  be  the  constant  =  4  cwt.  ;  b  the 
breadth  in  inches  ;  d  the  depth  in  inches  ; 
L  the  length  in  feet ;  B.W.  the  breaking 
weight  =  114  cwt.  Therefore  a  joist  10  in. 
by  3  in.  would  be  suitable  for  a  span  of 
18  ft.,  and  would  carry  a  load  of  1  cwt.  per 
ft.  super.  The  following  rule  is  given  by 
Tredgold  for  fir  joist : — 


B 


9-9 


In  this  case  a  breadth  must  be  assumed, 
which  is,  in  most  cases,  a  diflicult  and  very 
uncertain  proceeding ;  however,  assuming 
for  the  present  example  the  breadth  to  be 
3  in., 
Then 

B  

8 

X 


D 


X  '>"2 


9-7 


1*  =  ;/^ 

D  =  V108  X  2-2  =  4-5  x  2-2  =  9-9  in. 

The  result  is  very  much  the  same  as  in  the 
previous  example,  but  the  advantage  of  the 
first  method  will  be  obvious  when  dealing 
with  further  calculations,  as  it  is  applicable 
to  other  beams  than  floor  timbers. 

Determining-  Size  of  Binder. 

Say  it  is  required  to  determine  the  size 
of  binders  10  ft.  long  and  fixed  6  ft.  apart, 
capable  of  carrying  a  floor  weighing  1  cwt. 
per  ft.  super.  Make,  as  before,  the  neces- 
sary preliminary  calculation.  (1)  Total  load 
carried  by  the  binder  =10  x  6  =  60  cwt. 
(2)  Breaking  weight  (say)  seven  times  safe 
load  =  60  X  7  =  420  cwt.  (3)  Let  the  ratio 
of  the  breadth  and  the  depth  be  as  6  is  to 
10,  that  is  "6  d,  which  is  a  very  suitable  ratio 
for  all  purposes  where  stiffness  is  required. 
(4)  Let  c  the  constant  =  4  cwt.  Then, 
using  the  same  formula  as  before, 

2cbd^ 
L 

2  X  4  X  -ec^  X 

420  = 


break  in  5 


weight  = 


4  X  -3 


;r  =  1080. 


d' 


10 

420  X  10 
2  X  4  X  -6 


=  875. 


FLOORS. 


85 


d  —  ^/875  =  9-5  nearly, 
and  6  =  -GcZ  =  -6  x  9-5  =  5-7  in. 

Therefore,  a  binder  9*5  in.  x  5-7  in.  would 
carry  a  floor  weighing  1  cwt.  per  ft.  super, 
over  a  span  of  10  ft.  The  following  rule  is 
given  by  Tredgold  : — 


3 


In  this  case,  again,  the  breadth  must  be 
assumed.    Let  this  be  taken  as  5*5  in., 


then  D 
.-.  d 


10  X  10 


X  3-42 


_  5-5 
Vis  X  3-42 
.-.  f/=  2-7  X  3-42 
=  92  nearly, 

which  corresponds  very  nearly  with  the 
first  case. 

Determining  Size  of  Girder  for 
Supporting-  Floor, 

Girders  10  ft.  apart  from  centre  to  centre 
carry  a  floor  weighing  IJ  cwt.  per  ft. 
super.  Required,  the  breadth  and  depth 
for  strength;  span  20  ft.  (1)  The  total  load 
carried  by  the  girder  is  20  x  10  x  1*25  = 
250  cwt. — that  is,  the  length  multiplied  by 
half  the  bay  on  either  side  multiplied  by 
the  load  per  ft.  super.  (2)  Let  B.W.  =  7 
times  the  safe  load  =  250  x  7  =  1,750  cwt. 
(3)  Let  breadth  be  -6  d.  (4)  Let  c  the 
constant  be  4  cwt. 


Then 
B.W.  = 


1750 


2  c  6  c^  -^ 


2  X  4  X  -6^^  x  d'^ 
20 

1750  X  20 


.  .  ^  _  ^      ,      ^  _  .262-5 
2  X  4  X  -b 

d^  V7262-5  =  19-25  in.  nearly, 

h  =  -GfZ  =  -6  X  19-25  =  11-550  in. 

Therefore,  the  breadth  and  depth  of  a 
suitable  girder  for  the  required  purpose  must 
be  11-5  in.  wide  and  19-25  in.  deep.  It  is 
needless  to  remark  that  a  wooden  girder 
20  in.  deep  is  impracticable,  and  a  wrought- 
iron  girder  would  be  substituted  for  it ;  but 
as  the  above  is  merely  an  illustrative  ex- 
ample, the  construction  of  the  girder  need 


not  be  discussed,  Tredgold's  rule  for  fir 
girder  is  : 


B 


X  4-2. 


Let  the  breadth  (which  must  be  assumed) 
be  12  in.    Then  :— 


-p.  X  20      ^  ^ 


400 


X  4-2 


=  yM^x  4-2 
=       3-2  X  4-2 
=  14  in.  nearly. 

It  is  evident  from  this  that  a  girder  20  in. 
deep  is  by  far  too  large,  or  that  a  girder  of 
14  in.  is  much  too  small.  If  the  formulae 
in  each  case  are  examined  it  will  be  found 
that  the  first  is  based  on  the  strength  of  a 
small  beam  determined  by  trial,  while  the 
second  is  doubtful.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  a  girder,  12  in.  by  14  in.,  and  20  ft. 
long,  is  not  capable  of  carrying  a  load  of 
250  cwt.,  as  determined  by  the  recognised 
formulae.  It  may  be  mentioned  further 
that  the  loads  are  considered  as  distributed 
loads,  v/hile  in  reality  they  are  loads  placed 
at  certain  fixed  points,  namely,  the  points 
where  the  binders  are  connected  to  the 
girder ;  consequently  the  dimensions  ob- 
tained by  the  formulae  are  slightly  less  than 
they  ought  to  be. 

Thus 

2  c  h  d' 


B.W.  = 


2  X  4  X  11-5  X  19-25  x  19-25 


!0 


1704-58  cwt. 


which  is  less  than  the  actual  breaking  weight 
calculated  for,  namely,  1,750  cwt.  The 
strongest  floor,  for  the  quantity  of  timber 
used,  is  given  in  the  first  case,  while  the 
apparent  strength  shown  in  the  second  and 
third  cases  results  in  actual  weakness.  But 
single  floors  should  not  be  used  for  spans 
exceeding  16  ft.  ;  and  though  they  are 
sometimes  used  for  spans  up  to  24  ft.,  in 
such  cases  deflection  is  considerable,  resulting 
in  cracked  ceilings,  etc.  It  may,  neverthe- 
less, be  stated  that  each  floor  has  its  advan- 
tages and  its  disadvantages.    The  above 


86 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


calculations  are  not  worked  out  exactly, 
the  nearest  fraction  being  taken  in  each 
case. 

Floor-Boards. 

Timber  Used  for  Flooring. — Many  varie- 
ties of  wood  are  manufactured  into  flooring. 
For  elaborate  purposes  wainscot  oak,  teak, 
etc.,  are  employed  ;  but  for  less  expensive 
work  coniferous  timber  is  used,  of  which 
there  are  several  kinds.  Pitchpine  is  the  most 
elegant  and  durable ;  other  kinds  are  : 
Riga  (red  and  white),  Bjorneborg  (red  and 
white),  Swedish  and  Norwegian  white  wood, 
and  Quebec  red.  White  deal  is  a  timber 
that  is  seldom  if  ever  kept  under  cover  ;  it 
is  generally  sawn  and  wrought  direct  from 
exposed  stacks.  Red  deal — especially  floor- 
ing battens  and  deals — is  invariably  kept 
under  cover.  Pitchpine  is  never  imported 
in  battens,  but  in  logs,  deals,  and  irregular 
sized  scantlings,  which  can  be  with  safety 
stacked,  when  pinned,  in  an  exposed  place. 
For  flooring,  etc.,  white  deal  is  used  to  a  far 
greater  extent  than  red  deal  or  pitchpine, 
on  account  of  its  cheapness  and  adaptability. 

List  of  Shippers'  Marks  on  Floorings. — 
The  following  is  a  list  of  floorings  with 
the  shippers'  marks,  showing  the  quality 
and  port : — 


^  A  +  A  ^ 
B  S  S  C 

B  C 
B  B  B 
B-Co. 
C  +  K 
D  M 
DOM 
E 

E  E  E 
FAS 
GLINGE 

N  A  S 

K  H  B 

H  A  B 

H  +  B 

H  +  B  +  T 


Srd. 

1st. 

2nd. 

3rd. 

u/s. 

2nd. 

3rd. 

2nd. 

1st. 

2nd. 

3rtl. 

3rd. 

2nd. 

1st. 
2nd. 
1st. 
3rd. 


Iggesund 
Sandarne 


Domigo 
Skutska 


Sundswall 

Gothenburg 
Fredrikstad 

Gefle 


Fredrikstad 


Shippers'  Marks 
H^H 
H  T  A  B 

J  C  K 
J  B  &  Co. 
J  F  J 
^KH  B  ^ 
K  +  K 

N  +  W 
N  =  W 
N  W 
P  A  T  ^ 

S  A  F 
SAL 
S*B 
S  B  S 
SAB 
Si^F 
S  F  A 
S  F  B 

s  +  w 

S  K  B  5fe 
S  K  B 
S  U  N  D 
S  V  ^  V  I  K 
S  V  *  V  I  K 
S  D  D 
W  &  Co. 
W  D  cfe  Co. 
WIESE  &  Co. 
^  ^  ^ 


on  Floorings  (continued) 
1st.  Hudikswall 
3rd. 

1st.  Domsjo 
2nd.  Soderhamn 
us.  Fredrikstad 
Extra  1st.  Gefle 
3rd.  Domsjo 
1st.  Soderhamn 
1st.  Sundswall 
2nd. 
3rd. 

1st.  Hudikswall 
2nd. 

2nd.  Gothenburg 
2nd. 

Extra  1st.  Skonvik 

1st. 

2nd. 

1  St.  Gothenburg 
1st.  Fredrikshald 
2nd. 
Srd. 

Extra  1st.  Skutska 
1st. 

1st.  Sundswall 
1st.  Swartwik 
2nd. 
3rd. 

2nd.  Fredrikshald 
1st. 

1st.  Fredrikstad 
3rd.  Gefle 
u/s 


Sizes  of  F16or-Boards. — The  sizes  of  floor- 
ing generally  taken  from  white  deal  are 
3  in.  by  |  in.,  3  in.  by  in.,  3  in.  by  If  in., 
5J  in.  by  |  in.,  6  in^  by  |  in.,  6J  in.  by  f  in., 
5^  in.  by  1|  in.,  6  in.  by  IJ  in.,  6J  in.  by  IJ 
in.,  and  6J  in.  by  If  in.  These  sizes  do  not 
include  the  tongue,  or  feather,  consequently 
the  stuff  is  J  in.  broader  in  the  rough  than 
when  wrought.    The  most  suitable  battens 


FLOORS. 


ioT  flooring  are  6  in.  by  2  in.,  6  in.  by  2J  in., 
GJ  in.  by  2J  in.,  7  in.  by  21  in.,  and  7  in.  by 
3  in.  When  3-in.  by  |-in.  flooring  is  being 
cut  and  wrought,  the  most  suitable  sized 
batten  is  7  in.  by  3  in.,  which  gives  six 
pieces,  three  saw  cuts  being  sufficient — 


Fig.  365. — Ordinary  Direction  of  Grain  in  Floor- 
Boards 

namely,  two  deep  and  one  flat.  This  is 
when  wrought  single  with  the  flooring 
machine.  When  run  double  with  the 
machine  two  saw  cuts  through  the  depth 
are  sufficient.  The  flat  cutting  in  this 
instance  is  done  with  the  flooring  machine. 
The  double  working  of  flooring  and  lining 
with  machinery,  though  much  the  quicker 
way,  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  the  single 
method,  for  each  alternate  board  has  to  be 
reversed,  besides  the  further  disadvantage, 
if  the  battens  are  waney,  of  the  groove  being 
always  on  the  waney  edge.  Similar  sized 
flooring  (f  in.)  can  also  be  cut  from  7-in. 
by  2J-in.  battens.  Two  boards  may  be 
cut  f  in.  in  thickness  and  one  J  in.,  thereby 
utihsing  the  whole  batten  ;  in.  by  |-in. 
boards  are  taken  from  6-in.  by  2-in.  material ; 
3-in.  by  IJ-in.  from  7-in.  by  2J-in.,  3-in. 
by  l|-in.  from  7-in.  by  3-in. 

Operation  of  Floor-Board  Planing  Machine. 
— The  fixed  cutters  or  face  irons  of  a  floor- 
ing machine  produce  the  best  and  smooth- 
est work.  These  tools  operate  on  the  under 
side  of  the  boards ;  therefore  the  freshly 
sawn  side  should  be  placed  downwards  to 
receive  the  finishing,  which  the  face  irons 
accomphsh.  The  revolving  top  scutching- 
block  is  not  so  much  used  for  dressing  as 
for  bringing  the  boards  to  an  exact  thick- 
ness. So  long  as  one  side  of  the  board  is 
well  dressed  and  of  accurate  thickness,  it  is 
not  important  to  have  the  other  side  so  well 
done.  Some  machines  have  fixed  planers 
on  the  upper  side,  but  such  cannot  bring 
the  stuff  to  an  accurate  thickness  like  the 
revolving  scutch-block.  It  is  heavy  work 
for  fixed  cutters  to  reduce  boards  y\  in.  ; 
the  scutching-block,  however,  can  easily 


87 

take  i  in.  off.  With  evenly  sawn  wood 
heavy  cutting  has  seldom  to  be  resorted  to. 
The  leading  advantage  of  the  scutching- 
block  compared  with  fixed  cutters  is  that 
the  block  makes  an  irregular  surface  parallel, 
whereas  fixed  cutters  follow  the  uneven 
nature  of  the  board,  and  do  not  alter  any 
irregularity  which  it  may  have.  There  are 
many  cutter  heads  for  the  formation  of  the 
tongue  and  groove.  The  face-iron  side  of 
the  groove  and  tongue  should  project  a  little 
more  than  the  scutched  side  ;  by  this  means 
the  faced  side  of  the  flooring,  when  driven 
home  and  placed  in  position,  has  a  better 
joint  than  it  otherwise  would  have.  The 
"  Shimer "  patent  heads  make  the  finest 
work  ;  with  a  feed  speed  of  60  ft.  or  80  ft. 
per  minute  undue  chipping  is  very  rare  with 
the  "  Shimer "  patent.  A  good  machine 
can  run  from  9,000  to  11,000  sup.  ft.  of  6-in. 
or  6J-in.  by  IJ-in.  flooring  per  day,  or  4,000 
sup.  ft.  of  narrow  flooring.  All  IJ-in. 
material  is  taken  from  2J-in.  battens, 
whether  broad  or  narrow.  Flooring  above 
IJ  in.  thick  is  sometimes  run  with  two 
grooves  instead  of  one,. and  slip  feathers 
are  employed  in  place  of  the  solid  formed 
tongue.  This  plan  saves  J  in.  on  the 
breadth  of  each  board. 

Stacking  Floor-Boards. — Finished  flooring, 
no  matter  how  well  it  may  be  stacked  and 
pinned,  is  always  liable  to  become  twisted 
whilst  being  seasoned.  To  obviate  this, 
the  material  should  be  sawn,  pinned,  and 
stacked  in  the  rough.  Let  it  season  for  six 
or  eight  weeks ;  then  finish  it  with 
machinery.  Work  done  in  this  way  can 
be  stored  in  bulk  under  cover  without 
being    pinned    or    ventilated.  Flooring 


Fig.  366. — Direction  of  Grain  for  Least  Shrinkage 
of  Floor-Boards. 

wrought  on  this  principle  does  not  twist, 
cast,  or  shrink  like  material  finished  and 
stacked  at  one  operation  ;  it  is,  moreover, 
much  more  easily  laid.  This  rule  applies 
also  to  lining.  Red  deal  flooring  is  not  so 
generally  wrought  for  stock  as  white,  for 


88 


CAKPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


the  reason  that  red  deal  battens  are,  as  a 
rule,  kept  under  cover ;  orders  can  be 
executed  and  despatched  without  the  neces- 
sary seasoning  that  white  deal  requires. 


Laying  Floor  =  Boards. 

Folded  Floor.—"  Floors  to  be  laid  fold- 
ing with  the  joints  broken  "  means  that 
the  heading  joints  of  the  boards  are  not 


Figs.  367  and  368. — Laying 
Folded  Floors. 


Fig.  369.— Cramping  Floor-Boards  with  Dog  and  Folding  Wedges. 


Red  deal  is  more  easily  manufactured  than 
white.  It  is  to  a  certain  degree  softer  and 
not  so  tough  in  the  reed  as  spruce. 

Direction  of  Grain  in  Floor-Boards. — 
If  a  specification  does  not  insist  on  any 
particular  position  of  the  grain  of  the  wood, 
it  will  be  complied  with  by  either  of  the 
examples  shown  in  Figs.  365  and  366.  If 
the  grain  is  intended  to  show  "  annual  rings 
parallel  with  the  edges,"  words  to  that 
effect  should  be  inserted  in  the  specification, 
or  it  should  be  stated  that  "  all  boards  are 
to  be  cut  radially  from  the  tree."  No  doubt 
the  plank  shown  in  Fig.  366  would  be  less 
liable  to  warp  than  that  shown  in  Fig.  365 ; 


to  b  e  in  line  when  laid,  but  are  to  be  crossed 
in  as  long  lengths  as  possible  from  joist 
to  joist.  The  system  of  laying  the  boards 
with  a  succession  of  joints  in  line  causes 
unevenness  when  the  boards  shrink,  and 
weakens  the  floor.  The  term  "laid  fold- 
ing "  is  an  old  one,  and  was  applied  when 
mechanical  means  were  not  available  for 
bringing  the  joints  tightly  together.  In 
the  absence  of  a  floor  cramp  the  boards 
may  be  laid  with  fairly  tight  joints  by 
jumping  them  in,  as  shown  in  Fig.  367. 
The  first  board  next  the  wall  is  laid  and 
nailed  in  its  place  ;  then  other  boards 
(say  five),  to  make  a  width  of  about  3  ft.,  are 


Fig. 


370.— Floor  with  Joints  broken  at  3-ft. 
Intervals. 


but  to  obtain  all  like  this  would  mean  pick- 
ing over  a  very  large  parcel  of  boards  in 
order  to  get  the  quantity  required,  and  it 
may  be  looked  upon  as  impracticable. 


Fig.  371. — Ordinary  Pattern  Floor  Cramp. 

laid  down.  The  final  position  of  the  fifth 
board  having  been  ascertained,  the  fifth 
board  is  nailed  down  J  in.  inside  the  line 
it  takes  when  only  hand  tight.  The  four 
other  boards  are  then  jumped  in  and  nailed. 


FLOORS. 


89 


A  board  placed  over  the  loose  boards,  as  2  in.  thick  is  then  laid  next  the  board, 

seen  in  Fig.  368,  will  be  found  of  assistance  and  a  pair  of  hardwood  folding  wedges 

in  getting  the  floor-boards   down  to   the  is  driven  between  the  timber  and  the  dog 

joists,  but  there  will  still  be  some  difficulty  until  the  joints  of  the  board  are  close  ; 


A 

/ 

Fig.  372.— Improved  Form  of  Floor  Cramp. 

unless  the  four  boards  are  kept  loose — 
that  is,  none  of  the  intermediate  boards 
between  the  first  and  sixth  must  be  nailed 
until  all  of  them  are  tight  home.  Another 
simple  method  of  cramping  is  shown  in 


Fig.  373. — Another  Improved  Floor  Cramp. 

Fig.  369.  An  iron  timber  dog  (Fig.  47, 
p.  11)  is  driven  into  the  top  edge  of  the 
joist,  allowing  about  3  in.  from  the  edge 
of  the  floor-board.    A  piece  of  rough  timber 


Fig.  375.— Butt  and  Splayed 
Heading  Joints. 

then  the  boards  are  nailed,  the  dog  is  re- 
moved, and  more  boards  laid  in  the  same 
manner.  Both  the  methods  above  men- 
tioned are  usually  adopted  for  the  com- 
moner kinds  of  work  only. 

Laying  Floor  -  Boards  with  Aid  of 
Cramp. — Floors  laid  with  the  heading 
joints  crossed,  as  in  Fig.  370,  need  a  special 
cramp  to  bring  up  the  joints  ;  three  kinds 
of  cramps  are  shown  by  Figs.  371  to  373, 
but  a  variety  is  availal)le.  For  instance, 
batten-width  tongued  and  grooved  common 
Baltic  flooring  would  be  laid  in  the  follow- 
ing manner.  The  joists  would  be  tried 
over  and  brought  to  a  level.  A  batten,  or 
line  of  battens,  would  be  laid  down  next 
the  wall  to  line  true  at  the  outer  edge, 
and  then  be  nailed  to  the  joists.  The  re- 
maining rows  are  laid  two  or  three  at  the 
time  with  the  tongues  inserted,  then 
cramped  into  place,  nailed,  and  the  next 
lot  of  battens  applied.  If  the  battens  are 
already  tongued,  they  can  be  laid  either 
way,  as  the  block,  or  saving  piece,  between 
the  cramp  and  batten  can  be  grooved  to 
clear  the  tongue.  Figs.  371  and  372  show 
the  modes  of  using  floor  cramps.  When  the 
floor  has  been  finished  so  far  that  there  is  not 
sufficient  room  for  the  cramp,  the  remaining 


90 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


battens  can  be  wedged  in  from  the  wall, 
or  forced  together  by  using  a  piece  of  quar- 
tering as  a  lever. 

Floor  Brads. 

Nails  used  in  flooring  are  called  floor 
brads  (Fig.  374),  and  they  are  driven  through 


Fig.  376.— 
straight  Floor 
Joint. 


Fig.  377.— 
Rebated  Floor 
Joint. 


Fig.  378.— 
Rebated  and 
Filleted  Joint. 


Fig.  379.— 
Rebated,  Grooved 
and  Tongued  Joint 
for  Secret  Nailing. 


Fig.  380.— 
Iron  Tongue 
Joint. 


Fig.  381.— 
Dowelled  Floor 
Joint. 


the  floor-boards  into  the  joists,  two  at  each 
passing,  about  1  in.  from  the  edge. 

Joints  for  Floor=  Boards. 
Heading  Joints.— The  points  of  contact 
between  the  ends  of  two  floor-boards  are 
called  heading  joints  (Fig.  375).  a  (Fig.  375.) 
shows  the  section  of  a  butt  heading  joint,  but 
slightly  less  simple  than  the  splayed  head- 
ing joint  shown  in  section  by  b  (Fig.  375), 
These  joints  should  always  be  arranged  to 


occur  over  a  joist,  and  in  floors  laid  with  the 
aid  of  a  cramp,  contiguous  boards  should  have 
their  heading  joints  on  different  joists — 
that  is,  should  break  joint.  The  actual 
joint  is  made  in  different  ways.  In  common 
floors  the  boards  simply  butt  up  against 
each  other  a  (Fig.  375) ;  in  better  work  the 
heading  joints  are  splayed  b  (Fig.  375).  Even 
with  plain  headings  it  is  usual  slightly  to 
undercut  the  ends  so  as  to  present  as  close 
a  surface  joint  as  possible.  Sometimes  the 
heading  joints  are  grooved  and  tongued  in 
a  similar  fashion  to  the  longitudinal  joints 
described  below.  In  very  expensive  work 
the  ends  of  the  boards  are  cut  into  a  series 
of  sharp,  salient  and  re-entering  notches, 
whose  ridges  are  parallel  to  the  surface  of 
the  floor.  These  notches  fit  one  another, 
and  form  a  tight  joint.  Such  joints  are 
sometimes  used  in  oak  floors ;  they  are 
extremely  troublesome  and  expensive  to 
make,  and  the  point  nearest  the  surface  of 
the  floor  is  very  liable  to  break  away  even 
in  hard  wood. 

Edge  Joints. — The  ordinary  straight  joint 
for  the  longitudinal  edges  of  floor-boards 
is  shown  in  section  by  Fig.  37 6  ;  the  rebated 
joint  (Fig.  377)  is  another  common  method, 
a  joint  requiring  more  work  being  the  re- 
bated and  filleted  (Fig.  378).  The  rebated, 
grooved,  and  tongued  joint  (Fig.  379)  is 
useful  for  secret  nailing.  The  joint  shown 
in  Fig.  380  has  an  iron  tongue,  and  Fig.  381 
shows  the  dowelled  joint.  The  ploughed 
and  cross-tongued  joint  with  slip  feather 
(Fig.  260,  p.  62)  is  also  used.  In  all  floors 
which  are  ceiled  underneath,  means  should 
be  taken  to  prevent  dust  or  particles  of  any 
kind  from  falling  between  the  boards.  Any 
accumulation  of  organic  matter  on  the  upper 
surfaces  of  the  plaster  is  certain  to  decom- 
pose. The  ceiling  being,  moreover,  always 
more  or  less  porous,  these  particles  gradu- 
ally work  their  way  to  the  under  surface, 
and  produce  a  stained  appearance,  which  no 
amount  of  whitewashing  or  scraping  will 
remove.  The  usual  method  of  preventing 
this  is  to  form  a  ploughed  and  tongued 
floor.  Each  board  is  grooved  on  each  edge, 
and  thin  slips,  or  tongues,  either  of  wood  or 
of  galvanised  iron,  are  then  inserted  (see 
Figs.  260  and  380).  If  of  iron,  the  tongue 
should  be  galvanised-    The  tongue  should 


FLOORS. 


91 


be  fixed  nearer  to  the  lower  edge  of  the 
board  than  to  the  upper,  so  that  as  much 
wear  as  possible  can  be  had  out  of  the  floor 
before  the  tongue  is  exposed.  Another 
method  of  attaining  the  same  object  is 
known  as  rebating  and  filleting  (see  Fig. 
378)  ;  a  rebate  is  cut  on  the  lower  edge  of 
each  board,  and  a  fillet  of  oak  or  some,  other 
hard  wood  fixed  in  the  space  thus  formed. 
For  superior  work,  a  dowelled  floor  (Fig. 
381)  has  the  advantage  of  showing  no  nails 
on  the  surface  ;  the  boards  are  pinned  to- 
gether between  the  joists  with  oak  dowels, 
and  nailed  obliquely  on  one  edge  only. 
Dowelled  boards  should  not  be  more  than 
3  in.  wide,  and  not  less  than  IJ  in.  thick 
when  finished.  The  "  Pavodilos  "  joint  is 
as  shown  by  Fig.  382,  a  sHghtly  modified 
form  being  that  shown  by  Fig.  383,  which, 
although  the  second  key  is  lost,  may  pos- 
sibly be  preferred  on  account  of  the  danger, 
when  nailing  down  the  flooring  jointed  as 
in  Fig.  382,  of  damaging  the  feather-edge 
of  the  board  that  is  being  fixed. 

Double  =  boarded  Floor. 

An  upper  layer  of  thin  oak  boards  is  some- 
times fixed  over  a  rough  deal  floor  for  the 
sake  of  appearance,  and  also  in  some  cases 
to  obtain  an  almost  impervious  surface. 
A  floor  of  this  kind,  wax-polished  and  well 
laid,  is  much  to  be  commended  for  the  ease 
with  which  it  can  be  cleaned,  and  for  its  non- 
absorbent  nature. 

Sou nd= proof  Floors. 

One  method  of  preventing  the  sound  from 
one  room  being  audible  in  another  room 
immediately  below  is  to  nail  fillets  to  the 
joists,  and  on  these  nail  a  layer  of  rough 
boards,  and  to  fill  in  on  the  top  of  these 
boards  a  stratum  of  lime-and-hair  mortar. 
Slag  felt,  a  preparation  of  slag  wool,  which 
is  a  material  produced  by  blowing  off  waste 
steam  into  the  slag  of  iron  furnaces,  is  also 
used  for  this  purpose.  In  the  case  of  the  slag 
felt  the  process  is  as  follows  :  On  the  under 
side  of  the  joists,  fillets  are  nailed  to  wooden 
blocks  1  in.  thick,  and  to  these  fillets  the 
lathing  for  the  plaster  ceiling  is  affixed. 
The  slag  wool  (known  as  "  pugging  ")  is  then 
laid  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  laths,  and 
is  felted  by  a  patent  process,  this  process  of 


felting  removing  entirely  the  property  which 
the  slag  wool  possesses  of  emitting  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen,  and  also  reducing 
the  weight  of  the  material.  Slag  material, 
being  fireproof,  is  to  be  preferred  to  sawdust 
and  other  combustible  materials  sometimes 


Fig.  383. 

Figs.  382  and  383. — "Pavodilos"  Joint  in 
Flooring. 


used.  Fig.  384  shows  the  section  of  part  of 
a  common  floor,  showing  9-in.  by  3-in.  joists, 
and  IJ-in.  boarding  with  a  rebated  heading 
joint.  In  addition,  "  pugging  "  and  a  lath- 
and-plaster  ceiling  are  shown.  The  object 
of  the  pugging  is  to  reduce  the  transmission 
of  sound.  The  fillets  for  supporting  the  pug- 
ging need  not  be  of  the  shape  indicated  in 
Fig.  384.  Another  means  of  attaining  the 
desired  end  is  to  nail  strips  of  felt  on  the 
upper  edges  of  the  joists,  under  the  floor- 
boards. By  this  means  the  connection 
between  the  joists  and  boarding  is  broken. 
This  arrangement  creates  some  difficulty  in 
fixing  the  boards,  which  can  be  overcome  by 
nailing  a  lath  along  the  top  of  the  felt. 


Fig.  384. — Section  of  Sound-proof  Floor  with 
Pugging. 


Fireproof  Wooden  Floors. 

Protected  Wooden  Floors. — One  of  the 

simplest  and  most  economical  methods  of 
constructing  a  fire-resisting  floor  is  to  pro- 
tect an  ordinary  wooden  floor  with  slabs 
of  asbestic  plaster  or  of  slag  wool  (silicate 


92 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


cotton),  both  of  whicli  can  be  obtained 
commercially  in  slabs,  as  cloth,  or  in  the 
form  of  loose  fibre  or  wool.  The  loose  wool 
is  useful  for  filling  up  the  spaces  between 
the  joists  as  a  pugging  to  deaden  sound  (as 
already  described),  as  well  as  affording  pro- 
tection against  fire.    A  convenient  method 


Fig.  385.— Asbestos  Slabs  under  Wooden  Floor. 

of  attaching  the  slabs  is  shown  in  Fig.  385. 
The  slabs  are  formed  by  enclosing  silicate 
cotton  between  sheets  of  galvanised  wire 
netting,  and  are  made  of  thicknesses  varying 
from  1  in.  to  3  in.  They  are  secured  to 
the  under  side  of  the  joists,  as  shown  at  a, 
by  wooden  fillets  b  b  nailed  underneath,  the 
nails  passing  through  the  slabs.  To  these 
fillets  are  secured  the  laths,  when  a  lath-and- 
plaster  ceiling  c  is  desired.  Additional 
security  can  be  obtained  by  placing  other 
slabs  between  the  joists,  resting  on  tri- 
angular fillets  as  shown  in  Fig.  386.  Owing 
to  the  comparative  cheapness  of  these 
methods  of  construction,  and  the  measure 
of  security  they  afford,  they  are  worthy  of 
more  general  adoption  in  dwelling-houses 
and  office  buildings. 

Solid  Wooded  Floors. — Woodwork,  when 
used  in  solid  masses,  is  an  excellent  material 
for  fireproof  construction.  It  is  extremely 
difficult  to  destroy  timber  in  bulk  by  fire, 
and  in  America,  partly  on  this  account,  and 
also  on  account  of  the  cheapness  of  timber. 


Fig.  386. — Asbestos  Slabs  between  Joists. 

floors  and  walls  are  constructed  of  planks 
nailed  together  side  by  side.  The  walls  of 
many  of  the  large  grain  elevators  and  station 
buildings  are  constructed  in  this  way.  The 
system  of  forming  floors  by  close  timbering 
instead  of  the  ordinary  use  of  joists  and 
flooring  boards,  was  introduced  into  England 


by  Messrs.  Evans  and  Swain  between  1870 
and  1880.  The  joists,  instead  of  being 
placed  at  some  distance  from  each  other, 
were  laid  close  together,  so  that  air  could 
not  penetrate  between  them,  the  planks 
being  then  spiked  as  shown  in  Fig.  387.  As 
an  alternative  method,  the  spikes  could  be 
driven  in  diagonally,  and,  if  thought  neces- 
sary, the  under  side  of  the  planks  could 
be  protected  with  a  plaster  ceiling  keyed 
into  grooves  formed  in  the  planks.  As  a 
test  of  the  capability  of  this  system,  a  build- 
ing was  erected  14  ft.  square  inside  of  14-in. 
brick  walls,  and  measuring  7  ft.  from  the 
ground  to  the  ceiling.  The  flooring  was 
laid  as  described  above,  of  deal  battens  7  in. 
deep  by  2J  in.  thick,  spiked  together  side  by 
side.  One-third  of  the  under  side  was  plas- 
tered, the  joists  being  grooved  for  this 
purpose  ;  one-third  was  plastered  on  nails 
partly  driven  into  the  planks,  and  the 
remaining  third  was  left  unprotected.  The 


Fig.  387.— Floors  of  Solid  Wood. 


chamber  underneath  was  packed  almost  full 
of  timber,  which  was  then  lighted,  and  it 
was  not  until  after  five  hours'  continuous 
exposure  to  the  flames  that  the  unprotected 
portion  of  the  floor  gave  way.  The  system 
was  afterwards  adopted  in  large  warehouses 
for  the  East  and  West  India  Docks,  London, 
and  in  other  buildings. 

Other  Systems. — A  modification  of  the 
system  just  described  has  been  patented  by 
Messrs.  Hinton  and  Day,  and  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  388.  The  joists  are  spaced  apart 
in  the  ordinary  way,  but  the  spaces  are  filled 
in  with  solid  blocks,  having  the  grain  placed 
vertically,  tongued  and  grooved  together  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  passage  of  air  be- 
tween them  is  prevented.  The  blocks  are 
carried  by  fillets  nailed  to  the  sides  of  the 
joist.  A  test  of  this  system  of  flooring  was 
made  at  Westminster.  Four  walls  of  9-in. 
brickwork  were  erected,  and  the  under  side 
of  the  floor  to  be  tested  was  9  ft.  6  in.  from 
the  ground.    The  lower  part  of  the  building 


FLOORS. 


93 


was  filled  three  parts  full  with  inflammable 
material  (no  petroleum  or  grease,  however), 
and  a  fierce  fire  maintained  for  more  than 
two  hours,  after  which  it  was  extinguished, 
and  the  under  side  of  the  floor  was  found  to 
be  charred  to  a  depth  of  f  in.  In  American 
factory  and  workshop  buildings  a  layer  of 
mortar  d  is  often  introduced  between  two 
thicknesses  of  flooring,  as  shown  in  Fig.  389; 
Here  8-in.  by  4-in.  wooden  joists  e  support 
the  flooring  planks,  which  are  3  in.  thick, 
on  which  a  layer  of  mortar,  |  in.  thick,  is 
spread.  Floor-boards  IJ  in.  thick,  laid  on 
the  top  of  this,  form  the  working  surface 
of  the  floor.  Sometimes  the  floor-boards 
are  laid  in  two  thicknesses,  crossing  each 
other  diagonally,  as  shown  in  Fig.  390, 
in  which  f  indicates  the  layer  of  mortar. 
The  beams  carrying  the  floors  have  air  spaces 
round  each  end,  and  to  avoid  the  danger 
of  the  wall  being  pufled  down  by  a  falhng 


Fig.  388. — Solid  Blocking  carried  on  Fillets. 


beam  in  case  the  latter  should  be  burnt 
through,  the  upper  end  of  the  beam  is  cut 
away  at  both  ends  so  that  it  can  fall 
freely. 

Wood  =  Block  Floors. 

Solid  wood-block  floors  are  now  much 
used  in  the  basements  of  dwelling-houses, 
on  the  ground  floors  of  public  buildings,  and 
for  covering  certain  forms  of  fireproof  con- 
structions in  the  upper  floors  of  warehouses, 
etc.  The  advantages  they  possess  over  the 
ordinary  boarded  floor  are  :  damp-proofness, 
freedom  from  dry  rot,  greater  lasting  proper- 
ties, and  freedom  from  vibration,  and  they 
do  not  transmit  sound  nor  harbour  vermin  ; 
they  are  more  sanitary,  through  the  absence 
of  shrinkage,  and  consequent  open  joints  of 
the  older  system  ;  and  the  absence  of  nails 
is  also  a  great  advantage,  as  the  holes  made 
by  these  are  always  unsightly,  and  when 


the  boards  wear  down  the  heads  project, 
to  the  discomfort  of  the  users. 

The  Wood  Blocks. — Wood  blocks  are 
generally  made  from  9  in.  to  18  in.  long  by 
3  in,  wide,  and  from  IJ  in.  to  3  in.  thick,  of 
yellow  deal,  pitchpine,  oak,  birch,  maple, 
or  beech.  They  should  be  prepared  from 
thoroughly  seasoned  and  sound  stuff.  The 
firms  who  make  a  speciality  of  this  work 
usually  dry  the  blocks  in  hot-air  chambers 
after  working,  and  afterwards  store  them 
in  a  dry  building.  Precautions  should  there- 
fore be  taken,  when  receiving  a  consign- 
ment from  the  factory,  to  store  them  under 
cover  until  they  are  required  ;  and  it  is  wise 
not  to  order  them  until  the  place  is  ready, 
because  their  storage  for  any  length  of  time 


Fig.  390. 

Figs.  389  and  390.— American  Systems  of 
Wooden  Floors. 

in  a  damp  building  will  defeat  the  object  of 
the  previous  drying,  and  for  this  the  pur- 
chaser has  to  pay.  The  smaller  sized  blocks 
are  sometimes  made  with  square  joints,  and 
are  held  in  place  by  the  cement  or  mastic 
with  which  the  foundation  is  covered,  but 
in  superior  work  the  blocks  are  also  con- 
nected by  grooves  and  tongues  or  dowels. 
Several  patented  systems  are  on  the  market, 
some  of  the  best  of  which  are  here  illus- 
trated ;  these  combine  an  interlocking  of 
the  blocks  with  the  substance  of  the  bed, 
by  means  of  dovetailed  grooves  or  inserted 
keys,  and  a  connection  with  each  other  by 
means  of  pins  or  tongues. 

Preparing  Basement  for  Wood-Block  Floor. 
— In  preparing  a  basement  to  receive  a 


94 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


wood-block  floor,  the  ground  should  be  taken 
out  from  8  in.  to  11  in.  (according  to  the 
thickness  of  the  blocks)  below  the  intended 
floor-Hne ;  the  surface  should  be  roughly 
levelled  and  rammed  solid  ;  1-ft.  6-in.  stakes 
are  then  driven  into  the  bottom  about  6  ft. 
apart,  and  levelled  off  to  6  in.  above  the 
ground  ;  the  site  is  then  filled  in  with  con- 
crete to  the  depth  of  the  stakes,  and  the 
surface  beaten  smooth.  A  blue  Has  Hme, 
or  Portland  cement,  should  be  used  for  the 
concrete,  in  the  proportion  of  1  cement  to  6 
aggregate.  The  concrete  bed  should  be 
allowed  to  settle  and  dry  before  proceeding 
with  the  next  step,  which  is  the  floating 
of  the  top  with  a  f-in.  layer  of  Portland 
cement  and  sand,  5  to  1  ;   preparatory  to 


Fig.  391.— Herringbone  Pattern  of  Wood-Block 
Floor  with  18-in.  Blocks. 


this  screeds  of  cement  about  3  in.  wide 
should  be  run  around  the  margins,  and 
across  the  room  every  6  ft.  or  8  ft.  ;  these 
should  be  accurately  levelled  and  struck 
straight  with  a  long  float,  and  when  set  will 
become  levelling  points  from  which  to 
strike  off  the  surface  of  the  cement ;  before 
the  latter  has  become  hard  it  should  be 
brushed  over  with  a  birch  broom  to  score 
the  surface  ;  it  must  then  be  allowed  time 
to  become  perfectly  dry,  as  any  trace  of 
moisture  will  be  fatal  to  the  adhesion  of  the 
bitumen  coat  next  to  be  laid.  From  seven 
to  fourteen  days,  according  to  the  state  of 
the  atmosphere,  will  be  required  for  this 
purpose  ;  and  as  an  additional  precaution 
just  before  laying  the  bitumen,  or  matrix,  as 
it  is  termed,  dust  a  little  fresh  lime  or  some 
fine  dry  ashes  over  the  surface  ;  these  must. 


however,  be  swept  thoroughly  off  before 
running  on  the  mastic.  The  bitumen  is 
sometimes  laid  in  two  coats,  the  first  being 
allowed  to  set  before  proceeding  with  the 
second  ;  the  purpose  of  this  is  to  ensure  a 
substantial  layer  of  bitumen  between  the 
blocks  and  the  cement,  but  this  is  only 
necessary  on  very  damp  sites.  The  objects 
of  the  three  different  layers  under  the  floor 
are  :  The  concrete  is  to  form  a  substantial 
and  unyielding  foundation,  and  also  to 
prevent  the  ground-air  arising  ;  the  cement 
layer  is  to  form  a  hard  and  regular  surface 
to  which  the  matrix  can  adhere  ;  and  the 
matrix  is  a  damp-proof  layer  that  will  effectu- 
ally prevent  any  moisture  that  may  pass 
through  the  cement  from  reaching  the 
blocks,  and  also,  being  strongly  adhesive, 
it  keeps  the  blocks  attached  to  the  cement. 
Various  mixtures  are  used  for  matrices,  the 
best  having  mineral  bitumen  as  a  base  ; 
but  frequently  a  simple  mixture  of  Stock- 
holm tar  and  pitch,  in  the  proportions  of 
2  of  tar  to  1  of  pitch,  is  used  (note,  gas  tar 
is  unsuitable).  When  this  is  laid  in  a  single 
coat,  screeds  of  wood  about  J  in.  or  f  in. 
thick  are  nailed  lightly  to  the  cement  to  form 
bays  about  4  ft.  or  5  ft.  square  ;  two  of  these 
should  be  filled  in  with  the  melted  matrix, 
which  should  be  boiling  hot,  and  the  first 
filled  in  will  be  ready  for  laying  the  blocks 
by  the  time  the  second  is  filled.  The  best 
consistency  of  the  matrix  for  laying  is  when 
it  is  thick  enough  to  receive  the  weight  of 
the  block  without  allowing  it  to  sink  in,  and 
yet  warm  enough  to  amalgamate  properly 
with  the  mixture  adhering  to  the  blocks. 
Scaffold  boards  should  be  laid  across  the 
bays,  resting  on  the  screeds,  for  the  men  to 
kneel  on  whilst  laying. 

Laying  the  Wood  Blocks. — The  mastic,  as 
the  fumes  are  suffocating,  should  be  heated 
in  a  large  iron  cauldron  in  the  open  air, 
and  brought  into  the  building  in  iron  pails. 
The  blocks  should  be  stacked  in  the  room 
near  the  doorway,  each  cut  to  its  proper 
size  and  each  series  stacked  by  itself.  To 
do  the  work  properly  two  men  at  least  will 
be  required  to  lay,  working  into  each  other's 
hands,  and  one  to  deliver  the  blocks  as  re- 
quired. The  order  of  delivery  and  of  laying 
will  depend  on  the  design,  as  will  be  men- 
tioned presently.    The  blocks  are  dipped  to- 


FLOORS. 


.95 


half  their  depth  into  the  pail  of  mixture,  care 
being  taken  not  to  allow  any  to  get  on  the 
surface,  and  lightly  tapped  into  place ; 
when  a  bay  is  completed  a  piece  of  quartering 
about  5  ft.  long,  with  one  side  planed  straight, 
should  be  struck  on  the  face  of  the  blocks  to 


Fig.  392. — Double  Herringbone  Design  with 
12-in.  Blocks. 


pairs  of  contiguous  blocks  should  be  laid  first 
right  along  that  side — that  is,  all  of  those 
having  mitred  ends,  as  these  provide  the 
starting  points  of  the  pattern,  then  follow 
on  alternately  left  and  right  as  described. 
A  beginning  should  always  be  made  at  the 


Fig.  394. — Chequer  Design  with  9-in.  Blocks. 


bring  them  to  a  uniform  level.  In  laying 
the  herringbone  design  (Fig.  391),  begin  with 
the  margin,  laying  this  as  far  as  the  mastic 
runs  ;  then  taking  two  blocks,  place  them 
in  the  left-hand  angle,  and  make  a  mark  on 
the  margin  where  the  edge  of  the  second 
block  reaches.  This  will  be  the  point  for 
fixing  the  small  triangular  piece,  marked 
No.  1  ;  next  fix  the  block  marked  2,  and 
then  Nos.  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  in  due  order.  This 
arrangement  makes  the  insertion  of  the 
tongues  or  pins  easy.  Having  reached  No. 
7,  either  move  to  the  right,  or  let  the  second 
man  take  up  the  running  with  block  No.  8, 
whose  position  is  found  by  measuring  from 
No.  6  with  two  blocks  as  before ;  then  let 


Fig. 


393. — Tile  Design  with  12-in.  Blocks. 


him  follow  on  with  Nos.  9  to  14  consecu- 
tively, when  the  first  man  will  lay  Nos.  15 
and  16,  and  the  second  Nos.  17  and  18,  and 
so  on.  The  shaded  portion  in  Fig.  391 
represents  the  recess  between  a  chimney- 
breast  and  the  wall.  If  a  beginning  were 
made  against  a  straight  wall  all  the  three 


wall  opposite  the  door,  working  towards  the 
latter  so  that  no  trafiic  may  pass  over  fresh- 
laid  work ;  and  after  all  the  blocks  are 
down,  sawdust  should  be  freely  strewn  over 
their  surface  to  absorb  any  mastic  that  may 
have  dropped  thereon,  and  scaffold  boards 
laid  on  spare  blocks  from  the  doorway^ 
should  it  be  necessary  to  pass  that  way. 
At  least  twenty-four  hours  should  elapse 
before  beginning  the  cleaning  off,  to  allow 
the  mastic  time  to  set  hard,  and  in  cleaning 
off  plenty  of  tallow  should  be  used.  It  will 
be  found  an  advantage  to  the  workmen  to 
have  a  pail  of  whiting  handy,  whilst  they 
are  laying  the  blocks,  into  which  they  can 
occasionally  dip  their  hands,  as  the  tar 


Fig.  395.— Panel  and  Frame  Design  with  Mixed 
Blocks. 

burns  severely  the  unprotected  skin.  As 
before  mentioned,  the  blocks  should  be 
all  cut  to  size  before  beginning,  and  this 
necessitates  the  setting  out  of  one  "  repeat  " 
of  the  design  full  size  upon  a  large  board  or 
a  clean  floor.    The  actual  blocks  should  be 


96 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


used  for  this  purpose,  fixing  down  the 
margins,  and  cutting  and  fitting  in  a  bay 
as  shown  by  the  dotted  line  A  (Fig.  391). 
Once  the  spread  of  a  bay  is  known,  it  is  easy 
to  space  out  the  quantity  for  a  room  and 


Fig.  396. — Section  of  Herringbone  Patterns  shown 
in  Fig.  391. 


ascertain  how  many  of  each  length  and 
shape  are  required.  It  is  best  to  lay  down 
all  recesses  like  the  one  shown,  and  cut  in 
all  the  blocks,  specially  marking  them. 
To  obtain  the  size  of  the  recess,  lay  down 
the  margin  blocks  tight  between  the  walls, 
or  frame  a  rough  template  to  the  opening. 
The  herringbone  pattern  must  always  be 
laid  square — that  is,  cut  ends  must  be  a 
mitre  of  forty-five  degrees. 

Designs  of  Wood-Block  Floors. — Design 
Fig.  392  is  laid  similarly,  beginning  with  the 
blocks  No.  1  and  following  on  with  2  and 
3,  etc.  Fig.  393  is  an  easy  design  to  lay 
when  once  the  corner  is  passed  ;  the  numbers 
indicate  the  order  of  laying  the  blocks.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  keep  the  sides  of  each  tile 
in  a  straight  line,  and  they  should  be  tested 
occasionally  with  a  straightedge.  Fig.  394 
is  an  easy  design  to  lay,  and  looks  very  well 
in  pitchpine.  Fig.  395  is  more  elaborate, 
but  very  effective  in  two  coloured  woods,  the 
darker  one  for  the  frames  and  the  lighter  for 


 6^  H 


Fig.  397.— Turpin's  Patent  Block  Floor. 


the  panels.  All  of  these  designs  are  based 
on  the  right-angled  triangle,  and,  given  the 
size  of  the  block,  they  can  be  readily  set  out 
to  fit  any  room  ;  each  pattern  being  a  re- 
peat, one  bay  multiplied  by  the  length  and 


width  of  the  room  will  show  the  quantity 
required.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  these 
blocks  are  usually  sold  by  the  hundred. 

Jointing  and  Fixing  Wood  Blocks. — Fig. 
396  shows  the  section  of  a  wood-block  base- 


Fig.  398.— Duffy's  Patent  Block  Floor. 


ment  floor  with  grooved  and  tongued  joints. 
Fig.  397  represents  a  section  of  Turpin's 
patent  interlocking  system  ;  here  a  tapering 
tongue  with  an  undercut  shoulder  on  the 
lower  side  is  stuck  on  the  solid  all  round  one 
block,  and  a  corresponding  groove  in  the 
other,  and  when  the  two  come  together  they 
form  a  dovetail  groove  into  which  the  mastic 
is  pressed  when  laying,  thus  forming  a  solid 
key  with  the  bed.  Duffy's  patent  is  shown 
in  Fig.  398,  and  consists  in  the  connection 
of  the  blocks  by  means  of  dowels  ;  these 
are  supplied  with  the  blocks  and  driven  in 
as  the  blocks  are  laid.  The  holes  are  bored 
by  machinery  and  are  at  exactly  the  same 


Fig.  399.— Geary's  Patent  Block  Floor. 

distance  apart,  whether  on  the  end  or  side, 
and  therefore  the  blocks  can  be  laid  in 
several  combinations.  In  Geary's  patent 
(Fig.  399)  each  block  is  fixed  to  the  mastic 
by  means  of  two  metal  keys  driven  into  the 


FLOORS. 


97 


ends  of  the  block  ;  these  project  from  the 
bottom,  and  are  buried  in  the  bed  material. 
The  key  is  drawn  to  enlarged  scale  in  Fig. 
400  ;  it  is  easily  knocked  out  when  a  block 
has  to  be  cut,  and  is  re-inserted  in  a  small 
mortise.  A  half  dovetail  groove  is  also 
worked  on  the  side  of  each  piece,  which 
forms  an  additional  key  to  the  block.  In 
Fawcett's  system,  shown  in  plan  at  b  (Fig. 
391,  p.  94),  and  in  isometric  projection  by 
Fig.  401,  the  ends  of  the  blocks  have  a  J-in. 
groove  cut  across  them  at  an  angle  of  forty- 
five  degrees,  and  these,  when  the  blocks  are 
laid  in  herringbone  pattern,  lie  in  a  continu- 
ous straight  line.  Into  these  grooves  a 
I -in.  by  j^-in.  steel  tongue  is  inserted  as 
shown  in  Fig.  401,  the  succeeding  row  of 
blocks   fitting   over   and   completing  the 


larger  portions  of  the  patterns,  the  natural 
colours  of  the  wood  afiord  sufficient  con- 
trast, but  for  bands  in  the  borders,  and  for 
edgings  for  the  geometric  figures,  more  vivid 
colours  are  sometimes  desirable,  and  these 
are  obtained  by  dyeing  some  light-coloured 
wood,  such  as  ash  or  sycamore,  to  the  re- 
quired tint.  The  three  forms  of  parquetry  in 
ordinary  use  are  known  respectively  as  thin, 
medium,  and  solid.  The  two  former,'  which 
are  respectively  out  of  J-in.  and  J-in.  stufi, 
are  glued  to  J-in.  or  f-in.  deal  backings  in 
squares  or  panels  from  10  in.  to  18  in. 
square,  and  these  panels  are  grooved  and 
tongued  all  round,  or  sometimes  dowelled, 
and  are  attached  to  the  counter-floor  either 
with  screws,  which  are  afterwards  pelleted, 
or  by  gluing  down.    The  former  method  is 


Fig.  400.— View  of  Metal  Key. 

groove.  This  system  is  very  effectual  in 
preventing  the  rising  of  individual  blocks, 
and  is  much  used  on  fire-resisting  concrete 
floors.  The  letter  references  in  Figs.  391  to 
399  not  mentioned  in  the  text  are :  c 
groove,  D  mastic,  e  cement,  f  concrete,  G 
ground. 

Parquet  Floors. 

Parquetry  is  a  method  of  covering  a  floor 
with  hard  and  richly  coloured  woods,  ar- 
ranged in  various  fanciful  and  geometric 
patterns,  the  effect  of  the  design  being 
brought  out  by  the  various  colours,  and  by 
the  direction  of  the  grain  in  the  component 
pieces,  which  are  selected  chiefly  for  their 
differences  in  this  respect.    Usually,  for  the 


Fig.  401. — Fawcett's  Patent  Block  Floor. 

employed  when  it  is  intended  to  remove  the 
parquet  at  some  future  time ;  and  the 
latter,  when  the  parquet  is  to  be  permanent. 
The  solid  parquet  is  about  1  in.  thick,  and 
the  various  pieces  are  usually  glued  direct 
to  the  counter-floor  and  to  each  other  in 
one  operation,  the  design  being  formed  as 
the  work  proceeds.  In  this  method,  all 
pieces  more  than  IJ  in.  wide  are  dowelled, 
or,  in  a  cheaper  class  of  work,  are  nailed  to 
each  other  with  wire  nails.  Borders  are 
fixed  first,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  these  are 
made  wide  enough  to  bring  all  small  recesses 
and  projections  into  line,  so  as  to  cause  no 
interruption  in  the  pattern ;  but  large 
openings  must  have  the  borders  broken  and 
returned  around  them. 


5 


TIMBER  PARTITIONS. 


Common  Stud  Partitions. 

This  chapter  will  consist  chiefly  of  illus- 
trations showing  the  construction  of  timber 
partitions.  Such  partitions  are  built  in  a 
variety  of  styles,  the  simplest  being  the 
common  stud  partition,  which  is  supported 


Fig.  402. — Part  Elevation  of  Common  Stud  Parti- 
tion supported  from  below. 


by  a  wall,  as  shown  by  Fig.  402.  This  is 
built  with  quartering,  and  is  not  braced 
or  trussed  in  any  way,  but  is  stifiened  by 
nogging  pieces  being  notched  into  the  edges 
of  the  studs  and  nailed  as  indicated.  Fig. 
403  shows  a  somewhat  similar  form,  but 
the  nogging  pieces  and  the  brick  nogging 
shown  add  to  the  stabihty.  The  partition 
can  be  finished  with  lath  and  plaster. 

Braced  and  Trussed  Partitions. 

Fig.  404  illustrates  a  form  of  partition 
the  sill  of  which  rests  on  floor  joists  whilst 
the  head  serves  as  a  middle  bearing  for  the 
floor  above.  The  joists  under  the  sill  are 
notched  on  a  plate  and  supported  by  a 
4J-in.  brick  partition  in  which  it  is  assumed 
there  is  at  least  one  opening  in  the  middle, 
on  account  of  which  the  braces  and  king- 
post are  introduced  into  the  partition  shown. 
When  the  sill  overhangs  the  joist,  as  shown 
at  A,  it  is  housed  into  the  post,  and  the  latter 
is  supported  on  a  bearer  fixed  between  the 
joists,  as  shown  in  Fig.  405.  Another 
method  is  shown  at  b  (Fig.  404),  the  post 
and  sill  being  mortised  and  tenoned  or  dove- 
tailed together  and  supported  by  a  bearer, 
which  rests  on  fillets,  nailed  to  the  joists, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  406.  Sometimes  the  par- 
tition is  framed  and  fixed  with  the  sill  run- 
ning through  the  openings,  as  indicated  by 
the  dotted  lines  at  b  (Fig.  404)  ;  just  be- 
fore the  floor  is  laid  the  sill  is  cut  out  be- 
tween the  posts.  A  trussed  partition  is 
usually  so  built  as  to  carry  its  own  weight, 
and  often  that  of  one  or  more  floors  as  well, 
and  to  distribute  the  weight  to  particular 
points  of  support,  as  will  be  made  clear 
by  the  following  examples.  Fig.  407  shows 
a  partition  which  has  to  carry  its  own  weight 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  span  and  also 
that  of  the  floor  above  ;  the  head  of  the  parti- 
tion serves  as  a  girder,  the  joists  being 


TIMBER  PARTITIONS. 


99 


TIMBER  PARTITIONS. 


101 


410. — Joint  between  Strut  and  Sill  in 
Trussed  Partition  (see  Fig.  407). 


notched  or  cogged  to  it.  The  ends  of 
both  head  and  sill  are  supported  by  stone 
corbels  built  in  the  walls.  The  sill  has  an 
intermediate  support  on  a  passage  wall  a. 
The  foot  of  the  king-post  should  be  con- 
nected to  the  sill  by  a  bolt  or  strap.  Figs. 
408  to  410  show  the  form  of  the  three  prin- 
cipal i  oints .  The  trussed  partition  illustrated 
by  Fig.  411  is  designed  to  answer  the  follow- 
ing requirements  :  A  trussed  "  framed " 
partition  between  the  front  and  the  back 
room  and  the  landing  of  the  same  house, 
providing  a  door  opening  on  to  the  landing 
7  ft.  high  by  3  ft.  4  in.  wide,  and  opening 
for  folding  doors  to  back  room,  9  ft.  high 
by  9  ft.  wide  ;  the  storey  is  assumed  to  be 
11  ft.  high  clear  of  the  joists.  Particulars  of 
the  various  joints  are  given  in  Figs.  412  to 
416.  This  being  an  example  of  carpentry  that 
requires  a  fair  amount  of  judgment  to  design 
properly,  it  will  probably  serve  as  an  example 
for  reference  if  it  is  fully  worked  out,  because 


Fig.  411. — Trussed  Cross  Partition  Kramo  witb  Two  Oponrngs-  and -to -support  Upper  Floor. 


102 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY 


this  kind  o£  partition  frequently  forms  the  411).  Fig.  413  shows  joints  between  partition 
support  of  floors,  as  shown  in  Fig.  411.  It  head  and  strut  (see  b,  Fig.  411).  Fig.  414 
has  been  assumed  that  the  sill  is  supported     shows  joints  between  door  post,  door  head. 


on  a  brick  partition  wall,  except  across  the  Fig-  416.— Joints  at  Foot  of  Strut  and  Door  Post 

passage,  where  the  sill  is  shown  resting  on  (Fig.  4ii). 
a  lintel.    The  enlarged  details  are  explained 

as  follows:  Fig.  4,1.2  §,boV^e  joints  hetwe^m  %  and ^.sl^ixt-X^ee  c.  Fig.  411).    Fig.  415  shows 

door  post,  door  head,: atid  bcace  (see  ^,  Fig.  \  j ;oin|  at  jdV  Fig.  411.    Fig.  416  shows  joint 


104 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY 


between  sill,  brace,  and  door  post  (see  Fig. 
411) ;  also  showing  sill  notched  to  receive 
the  joist.  Figs.  417  to  421  illustrate  examples 
of  partitioning  to  the  upper  storeys  over  a 
ground  floor  which  is  used  for  business 


419).  Fig.  421  shows  the  plan  of  the  cross 
and  staircase  partition.  The  staircase  par- 
titions are  6  ft.  from  the  flank  wall,  so  that 
the  upper  staircases  may  be  formed  of  two 
flights.    The  cross  partition  (Fig.  418)  has 


Fig-.  418. — Elevation  of  Cross  Partitions. 


purposes.  Sketch  plans  of  the  ground  and 
second  floors  are  given  by  Figs.  420  and 
421.  In  the  ground  plan  (Fig.  420),  a 
private  entrance,  3  ft.  wide,  and  the  stair- 
case are  enclosed  by  a  4J-in.  brick  and 
studded  partition,  which  is  indicated  in 
section  and  elevation  at  a  (Fias.  418  and 


a  doorway  b  leading  from  the  staircase 
landing,  and  an  opening  c  is  provided  for 
folding  doors.  The  head  of  this  partition 
is  prepared  to  act  as  the  middle  bearing  for 
the  second  floor  joists,  and  it  serves  also  as 
a  sill  for  the  main  members  of  the  cross 
partition  to  the  second  floor,  which  in  turn 


TIMBER  PARTITIONS. 


105 


supports  the  third  or  garret  floor  joists  as  supported  by  them.  One  end  of  these  par- 
shown.  Fig.  419  shows  the  staircase  par-  titions  is  carried  by  the  back  wall,  and  the 
titions  to  the  first  and  second  floors,  having  other  is  connected  to  the  cross  partitions 
door  openings  e  and  f.  It  must  be  noted  by  means  of  f-in.  bolts,  which  are  indicated 
that  these  partitions  are  not  directly  over  at  a,  h,  c,  d,  e,  /,  and  g  (Fig.  418).  Owing 


Fig.  419. — Elevation  of  Staircase  Partitions. 


the  ground  floor  partition  a  (Fig.  418),  and 
therefore  do  not  receive  any  direct  support 
from  it.  These  partitions  are  designed  to 
carry  their  own  weight.  The  lower  one 
supports  one  end  of  the  first  floor  joists  of 
the  back  room  and  landing,  whereas  only 
the  landing  of  the  second  floor  has  to  be 

5* 


to  the  sill  m  (Fig.  419)  of  the  lower  cross 
partition  having  to  carry  the  ends  of  the 
joists,  the  strongest  method  doubtless  would 
be  to  fix  them  to  fillets  as  shown  at  I  (Fig. 
419).  The  fillets  would  be  spiked  or  bolted 
to  the  sill ;  mortising  and  housing  for  tusk 
tenoning,  etc.,  of  the  joists  would  greatly 


108 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  425. — Trussed  Partition  framed  for  One  Doorway  and  to  support  Two  Floors. 


TIMBER  PARTITIONS. 


109 


weaken  the  sill.  The  feet  of  the  studs  of 
the  upper  partition  (Fig.  418)  may  run  down 
and  be  fixed  to  the  head  o  or  to  a  thin  sill 
n  secured  to  the  tops  of  the  joists  as  shown. 
In  the  conventional  view  (Fig.  417)  the 
studs  have  been  omitted,  so  that  the  main 
timbers  of  the  framing  may  be  clearly  seen. 
The  front  second  floor  joists  have  also  been 
omitted  for  a  similar  reason . 

Quarter  Partition  Through  Two  Storeys. — 
Fig.  422  is  the  elevation  of  a  quarter  partition 
18  ft.  wide  and  24  ft.  high,  running  through 


are  tapped  at  each  end  for  nuts.  Fig.  426 
shows  a  partition  which  supports  similar 
loads,  but  having  two  openings.  The  sill  of 
the  partition  has  to  answer  as  a  girder  also, 
and  may  have  the  joists  connected  to  it  by 
means  of  tusk  tenoning,  housing,  etc.  ; 
formerly  that  was  the  general  method,  but, 
of  course,  the  beam  is  thus  greatly  reduced 
in  sectional  area  and  strength.  A  much 
better  way  is  to  fix  a  fillet,  either  by  nails  or 
coach  screws,  to  support  the  ends  of  the 
joists,  as  clearly  shown  in  Fig.  427. 


Fig.  426. — Trussed  Partition  framed  for  Two  Doorways  and  to  act  as  Middle  Bearing  for 

Two  Floors. 


two  storeys  and  self-supporting  over  the 
ground  floor.  On  the  first  floor  is  a  central 
doorway  6  ft.  6  in.  wide  by  7  ft.  6  in.  high  ; 
on  the  second  floor  is  a  doorway  3  ft.  wide 
and  6  ft.  6  in.  high,  3  ft.  6  in.  from  one  side 
wall ;  and  another  4  ft.  wide  and  6  ft.  6  in. 
high,  2  ft.  from  the  other  wall.  Figs.  423 
and  424  give  details  of  joints,  and  show  the 
necessary  ironwork,  joints  a  to  g  in  the  lower 
storey  being  shown  by  Fig.  423,  and  joints 
H  to  L  in  the  upper  storey  by  Fig.  424. 
A  partition  with  one  opening  and  supporting 
two  floors  is  shown  by  Fig.  425.  It  is 
strengthened  by  two  |-in.  iron  rods,  which 


Further  Designs  of  Trussed  Partitions. — 

Assume  that  a  room  15  ft.  wide  and  11  ft. 
high  is  to  be  divided  by  a  quarter  partition 
having  a  central  opening  for  a  folding  door 
7  ft.  wide  and  8  ft.  high.  A  suitable  trussed 
partition  would  be  the  one  shown  by  Fig. 
428,  in  which  all  necessary  scantlings  are 
given,  and  the  members  named.  When  a 
timber  partition  in  a  storey  12  ft.  high  has 
a  bearing  of  21  ft.,  and  has  to  carry  itself 
and  the  floor  above,  the  design  may  be  as 
in  Fig.  429,  which  shows  provision  for  a 
door  in  the  centre,  and  takes  consideration 
of  the  fact  that  the  binders  of  the  floor  above 


110 


CARPENTEY  AND  JOINERY. 


will  rest  on  the  top  of  the  partition.  All  combustible  material,  the  object  being  to 
scantlings  and  names  of  members  are  indi-  prevent  fire  passing  through  the  partition 
cated.  from  one  room  to  another.    In  a  case  where 


Fireproof  Partitions.  ^j^g  studdings  are  of  3-in.  stuff,  bricks  would 

Some  bye-laws  render  it  compulsory  to  be  laid  on  edge.    The  partition  can  be 

fill  in  the  spaces  in  a  timber  partition  with  covered  in  any   suitable  way — ^lath  and 

brickwork,  concrete,  pugging,  or  other  in-  plaster,  wainscoting,  etc. 


TIMBER  PARTITIONS. 


Ill 


Sound=proof  Partitions. 

Timber  partitions  are  rendered  more  or 
less  sound-proof  by  filling  in  with  sawdust, 


substance  because  of  the  greater  mass  that 
has  to  be  set  in  motion.  For  this  reason 
clean  dry  earth,  or,  preferably,  sand,  is 
better  than  sawdust.  But  the  weight  of  the 


which,  however,  does  not  answer  the  pur- 
pose so  well  as  a  heavier  material.  Sound 
or  vibration — the  same  thing— is  more 
readily  damped  or  absorbed  by  a  heavier 


sand  needs  to  be  taken  into  consideration 
in  designing  the  floor  supports.  A  number 
of  patented  systems  are  available  for  build- 
ing sound-proof  partitions. 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


Roof  Pitch. 

For  the  roofs  of  ordinary  buildings,  either 
30°  or  261°  is  adopted  for  the  pitch,  the 
former  having  a  rise  of  half  the  length  of 
rafter,  and  the  latter  having  a  rise  of  one- 
fourth  the  span,  known  also  as  square 


lap  should  also  be  increased.  Where  a 
2J-in.  lap  would  do  for  a  pitch  of  60°,  a 
4-in.  lap  would  be  desirable  for  a  pitch  of 
22J°.    When  the  span  and  rise  are  given, 

the  pitch  (a)  will  be  (for  example, 

span 


Fig.  431.— Lean-to  Roof  for  Shed. 


pitch:  Sometimes,  for  large  sheds  with 
iron  roof  trusses,  the  pitch  is  reduced 
still  more — to,  say,  a  minimum  of  22 J°. 
For  Gothic  work  and  for  exposed  positions, 
high-pitched  roofs  are  used,  say  45°  or  60°, 
and  occasionally  more,  covered  with  shingles, 
slates,  or  plain  tiles.  The  flatter  the  roof, 
the  heavier  the  slates  should  be,  and  the 


24-ft.  span  6-ft.  rise   =  —   =  J  pitch) ; 

or  (b)  will  be  a  slope  of  ^  ^.^^^  to  1  (for 

rise 

i  X  24 

example,  in  the  given  case  '^—^ —  =  2  to 
1) ;  or  (c)  the  pitch  in  degrees  will  be  the 

12 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


113 


angle  whose  tangent  is 


in  the  given  case 


rise 


span 


(for  example, 


^  X  24 


=  '5),  which  is 


the  tangent  of  an  angle  of  26°  33'.  To  set 
ofE  the  slope  of  a  roof,  say,  at  one-third 
pitch  draw  the  span  a  b  (Fig.  430),  divide 
it  into  three  equal  parts,  and  at  the  centre 


of  the  span  c  set  up  the  perpendicular  c  d 
equal  to  one  part ;  join  a  d.  Then  a  d  will 
be  the  required  pitch.  This  is  the  flattest 
pitch  at  which  tiles  should  be  laid. 

Lean = to  Roofs. 

Lean-to  roofs  in  their  simplest  forms  are 
used  for  covering  sheds  and  for  temporary 
purposes  shown  in  section  by  Fig.  431. 


114 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


They  are  also  largely  used  for  covering  the 
back  and  side  additions  to  all  kinds  of 
buildings,  the  spans  varying  from  a  few 
feet  up  to  20  ft.  or  more  Fig.  432  is  a 
conventional  view  of  an  ordinary  lean-to 
roof  over  a  back  addition.  The  head  of  the 
rafters  may  fit  on  to  a  plate  fixed  into  the 
main  wall,  or  the  plate  may  be  supported  on 
iron  corbels,  as  shown  at  a.  When  the 
span  is  more  than  8  ft.,  a  purlin  should  be 


Fig.  433. — Section  through  Trussed  Lean-to  Roof  for  Span  of  16  Feet. 


introduced.  The  span  for  these  is  unlimited 
within  reason,  but,  as  in  other  forms  of 
roofs,  the  rafters  should  be  supported  by 
purlins  at  about  every  7  ft.  In  the  larger 
spans  for  important  work,  framed  trusses 
from  8  ft.  to  10  ft.  apart  would  be  introduced. 
A  section  through  a  roof  of  this  descrip- 
tion is  given  at  Fig.  433,  which,  it  will  be 


Fig.  434. — Section  through  Trussed  Lean-to  Roof  for  Large  Span. 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


115 


I  seen,  is  a  half  king-post  truss.  The  example 
!^  shown  at  Fig.  434  is  a  form  often  adopted 
i  for  sheds  attached  to  main  buildings,  where 
I  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  covered-in  space 
jli  with  as  Uttle  obstruction  in  the  lower  part 
jl  as  possible.    One  end  of  each  truss  is  sup- 


case  is  a  proper  application  of  the  pole 
plate,  which  is  so  named  because  it  has  no 
intermediate  supports  between  the  trusses. 
The  conventional  view  (Fig.  436)  will  make 
clear  the  construction  at  the  foot  of  the 
rafters. 


Fig.  435.— Foot  of 
Post,  showing  it 
fixed  in  Base  Stone. 


Fig.  436.- 
Conventional 
View  of  Framing 
at  the  Foot  of 
Truss  Head  of 
Post,  etc. 


15  0 


Fig.  437.— Self-supporting  Shed  Roof. 


'  ported  by  a  pier  bonded  to  the  main  building, 
and  the  other  by  a  head  and  posts  which  are 
braced.  The  foot  of  each  post  is  sometimes 
fixed  into  a  stone  or  iron  base  (Fig.  435).  This 

i  is  to  prevent  damage  by  vehicles,  etc.,  and 
to  prevent  decay.  The  common  rafters 
are  supported  by  a  wall  plate  a,  by  purhns, 

:  and  at  their  feet  by  a  pole  plate  p.  This 


Fig.  437  illustrates  a  case  where  it  is 
desirable  to  roof  over  a  space  adjacent  to 
a  building,  and  to  leave  the  front  of  the 
covered  space  clear,  and  at  the  same  time 
not  to  fix  the  members  of  the  roof  to  the 
wall  of  the  buildings.  The  boarding  is 
supported  by  small  purlins,  or,  as  they  are 
sometimes  called,  horizontal  rafters.  For 


116 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


this  roof  to  be  entirely  self-supported  the 
post  would  have  to  be  well  bedded  in  the 
ground. 

Span,  Couple=close,  and  Collar- beam 
Roofs. 

Next  to  the  lean-to,  the  simplest  form  of 
roof  construction  is  that  known  as  the  span 


But  the  more  common  method  is  to  in- 
troduce purlins,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
roof.  So  as  to  support  the  centre  of  the 
rafters.  If  the  purlins  are  sufficiently- 
strong  and  bedded  in  the  gable  walls  at  each 
end,  and  the  rafters  notched  on  to  them, 
there  is  very  little  outward  thrust  on  the 
walls  at,  the  feet  of  the  rafters.    A  section 


Fig,  438.— Span  Roof 
or  Couple  Roof  suit- 
able for  Greenhouse. 


Fig.  439. — Section  through  Span  Roof  with 
Collar  Braces. 

or  couple  roof,  consisting  of  two  rafters 
fixed  at  the  required  pitch  or  inclination,  and 
fastened  at  the  feet  to  plates  embedded  on 
the  tops  of  the  walls,  while  their  heads  are 
either  halved  and  pinned  together,  or  nailed 
to  a  ridge-board.  Such  roofs  are  largely  used 
for  greenhouses  and  similar  purposes  (see 
Fig.  438).  To  remedy  the  obvious  tendency 
of  such  a  roof  to  spread  at  the  foot  and 
thrust  out  the  walls,  which  tendency  in- 
creases with  the  increase  of  span,  various 
means  are  adopted. 

Where  it  is  desirable  to  have  as  much 
space  in  the  roof  as  possible,  this  spreading 
may  be  obviated  to  a  great  extent  by  fixing 
collar  braces  as  shown  at  Fig.  439. 


Fig.  440. 


-Half  Section  through  Couple  Roof 
with  Purlins. 


through  a  little  more  than  one  half  of  a  roof 
of  this  description  is  given  at  Fig.  440,  a 
conventional  view  being  shown  by  Fig.  441. 
The  number  of  purhns  should  be  increased 
as  the  span  is  increased,  so  that  the  common 
rafters  do  not  have  a  greater  bearing  than 
6  ft.  to  8  ft.  I 


TIMBER  EOOFS. 


117 


Fig.  442. — Section  thr 

The  couple-close  roof  (Fig.  442)  over  a 
small  building  consists  of  rafters,  which  are 
bird's-mouthed  and  fixed  to  the  wall  plates  ; 
ceiling  joists  are  fixed  to  the  wall  plates 
and  act  as  ties  and  counteract  the  out- 
ward thrust  on  the  walls.  The  ceiling 
joists  are  usually  supported  at  the  centre 
by  being  nailed  up  to  a  beam  which  is 
tied  to  the  ridge  by  pieces  of  board  5  ft. 
or  6  ft.  apart  (Fig.  443). 

A  collar-beam  is  a  horizontal  beam  or 
brace,  generally  of  the  same  scantling  as 
the  rafters,  placed  from  one-third  to  half-way 
up  a  span-roof  and  connected  to  the  rafters 
at  each  side,  the  roof  now  becoming  a  collar- 
beam  roof.  . 

Fig.  444  is  a  form  of  roof  frequently 


Couple-Close  Roof. 


Fig.  443.— View  of  Method  of  Tying  Ceiling 
Joist  to  Ridge. 

and  the  rafters  are  notched  on  ;  whereas 
at  B  the  purlin  is  fixed  with  its  sides  at 
right  angles  with  the  pitch  of  the  rafters, 


118 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


this  being  probably  the  stronger  method. 
This  roof  is  additionally  strengthened  by 
inserting  a  collar  to  every  third  or  fourth 
rafter  as  shown  by  dotted  lines.  Fig. 
447  (p.  119)  shows  a  common  application 


Fig.  450  shows  the  joint  between  the 
principal  rafter  and  tie-beam,  which  are 
additionally  secured  by  an  iron  strap,  the 
ends  of  which  are  prepared  for  bolts  and 
nuts  securing  a  heel-plate  a.    It  also  shows 


Fig.  444. — Section  through  Span  Roof  for  a  Small  House. 


of  this  kind  of  roof,  largely  adopted  for 
dwellings,  from  the  cottage  to  the  villa 
class ;  the  collars  not  only  serving  as  ties 
to  strengthen  the  roof,  but  also  as  ceiling 
joists.  In  this  figure  the  collars  are  shown 
dovetail  notched  Fig.  445  shows  another 
form  of  dovetail  notching.  Fig.  446  shows 
a  form  of  notching.    When  there  is  no 


a  4J-in.  wall-plate  B,  on  which  the  common 
rafters  are  bird's-mouthed.  The  rafters  pro- 
ject beyond  the  wall,  and  bearers  c  are  fixed 
to  their  ends,  and  also  into  the  wall,  so  that 
the  soffit  boarding  and  fascia  board  may  be 
fixed.  A  cast-iron  gutter  is  shown  fixed 
to  the  fascia  board,  and  a  tilting  fillet  d  is 
also  shown. 


Fig.  445.— Form  of  Dovetail  Notching. 

ceiling  a  collar  is  usually  fixed  to  every 
third  pair  of  rafters. 

King=post  Trusses. 

A  king-post  truss  is  suitable  for  any  span 
up  to  30  ft.,  and  the  sizes  or  scantHngs  of 
its  members  are  shown  in  the  table  given 
on  p.  121.  A  cross  section  of  a  little  more 
than  one-half  of  a  28-ft.  span  roof  resting 
on  stone  template  on  14-in.  brick  walls  with 
9-in.  piers  is  presented  by  Fig.  448,  and 
part  longitudinal  section  at  Fig.  449.  The 
common  rafters  measure  3 1  in.  by  2  J  in.  The 
eaves  overhang  and  are  finished  with  fascia 
and  eaves  boarding.  Certain  details  of  con- 
struction require  to  bs  shown  separately 
on  a  larger  scale. 


Fig.  446. — Notching  Collar  into  Under  Edge 
of  Rafters. 

Fig.  451  shows  the  joint  between  principal 
rafter  and  strut ;  purlin,  cleat,  and  common 
rafter  are  also  illustrated.  The  cleats  are 
usually  fixed  with  spikes  or  coach  bolts. 

Fig.  452  shows  the  joints  and  three-way 
iron  strap  at  the  head  of  the  king-post ;  also 
the  ridge  and  its  junction  with  the  common 
rafters.  Fig.  453  is  the  joint  at  the  foot 
of  the  king-post,  with  stirrup-iron,  gib,  and 
cotters.  Fig.  454  is  a  vertical  section 
through  this  joint,  showing  straps,  gibs, 
and  cotters,  clearance  in  mortise  at  c,  and 
clearance  in  strap  at  D. 

Fig.  455  shows  the  foot  of  a  principal 
rafter  and  tie-beam  connected  with  a  wall 
having  a  cornice  and  parapet,  with  a  gutter 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


121 


Fig.  455. — Detail  at  Foot  of  Truss  in  Connection  with  Parapet. 


SCANTLINGS   FOR  TIMBER  ROOFS. 

The  table  below  shows  at  a  glance  the  respective  scantlings  for  collar,  king-post,  and 

queen-post  roofs. 


Descrip- 
tion of 
Roof. 

Span. 

Tie- 
beam. 

Principal 
Rafter. 

King- 
post. 

Queen- 
post. 

strut. 

Straining 
Beam. 

Purlin. 

straining 
Sill. 

Common 
Rafter. 

Collar. 

0) 

me 
Ins. 

71  X  U 
7  X  li 
7x1^ 
.9  X  11 
9  X  1| 
9jx  li 

{ 

Collar-  1 
beam  \ 
Roof,  j 

I 

r 

King-  1 
post  < 
Roof. 

r 

Queen-  j 
post  ^ 
Roof,  j 

I 

Ft. 

8 
10 
12 

14 

16 
18 

18 
20 
22 

l24 
i  26 
28 
30 

30 
i  32 
34 
36 
38 
40 
42 
45 

Ins. 

7x3 
9x4 
9x4 
9U  4 
9''x  5 

10  X  5 

11  X  6 

9x4 
10  X  4 
10  x  5 
10  X  6 

10  X  6 

11  X  6 
lljx  6 
12ix  6 

Ins. 

4^  X  3 

4x4 

6x3 

6    X  3i 

6    X  4~ 

6x4 

6x5 

bh  X  4 
6"  X  4 
6i  X  4 
U  X  5 
6"  X  6 
7x6 
7x6 
7i  X  6 

Ins. 

41  X  3 

5x4 

6    X  31 

6x4 

6x4 

6x6 

7x6 

Ins. 

41  X  4 
.5x4 
6x4 
7x4 
7x5 
7x6 
8x4 
8x6 

Ins. 

31  X  2 
4  x2i 
4    X  2| 
41  X  2 
4  x3 
4A  x3 
6  x3 

4  x3 
4x3^ 

^  x3i 

5  x3i 

5  X4"' 
6x4 

6  X  5 
6x  G 

Ins. 
• 

7  x4 
7^  X  4 
8"  X  4 
8x4^ 
8x5" 
8|  X  5 
8x6 
8x6 

Ins. 

7x3 
7  x4 
8x4 
8x5 
81  X  5 
8|  X  51 
8x6 

8x4 
8x4 
81  X  5 
81  X  5 
8|  X  51 
8x6 
9x5 
9x6 

Ins. 

4x4 
41  X  4 
5x4 
5x4 
5    X  41 
5    X  4| 
6x4 
6x4 

Ins. 

3x2 
3|  X  2 
3|  X  21 
4x2 
4x2 
4   X  21 

3|  X  2 
4x2 
41  X  2 
4i  X  2 
4i  x2i 
H  X  21 
41  x2i 

4x2 
4x2 
4i  X  2 
4|  X  2 
41  X  2 
4i  X  2 
4|  X  2 
5x2 

Ins. 

2x2 
2|  X  2 
'6h  X  2 
41  X  2 
5x2 
5i  X  2 

6 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


123 


124 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


formed  behind  the  latter.  In  this  case 
the  joint  between  the  tie-beam  and  principal 
raftes  is  fastened  by  means   of  a  bolt. 


Fig.  465.— Section  through  Main  Truss  showing 
Method  of  connecting  Tie-beam,  King-post,  and 
Hips  to  Ridge. 

Figs.  456  to  459  show  the  end  of  a  truss 
supported  by  an  iron  column.  This  case 
illustrates  the  use  of  the  pole-plate  and  also 
the  oblique  bridle  joint.  The  pole-plate 
serves  two  purposes,  viz.  to  connect  the 
ends  of  the  trusses  longitudinally  and  to 
support  the  rafters.  The  tie-beam  and 
principal  rafter  are  secured  together  by 
the  strap  shown  at  Fig.  459.  Obviously 
this  form  of  strap,  having  an  adjustable 
plate  at  the  top  which  can  be  forced  close  to 
the  heel  of  the  principal  rafter,  is  rather  a 
better  kind  than  when  simply  in  the  form  of 
a  stirrup-iron. 

Hipped  End  of  King -post  Roof. —  A 
conventional  view  of  a  portion  of  a  king- 
post roof  with  hipped  end  is  shown  at 
Fig.  460.  The  method  of  constructing 
the  truss  and  half -truss  as  shown  at  Fig. 
460  is  illustrated  by  Figs.  461  to  467. 
Undoubtedly,  for  most  cases,  the  stirrup- 
iron  with  gibs  and  cotters  is  the  best  form 


of  fastening  for  trusses  where  half-trusses 
have  not  to  be  attached  to  them  ;  but  when 
this  latter  is  the  case,  the  stirrup -iron 


Fig.  466.— Part  Elevation  of  Main  Truss  showing 
King-post  and  Section  of  Tie-beam  of 
Half  Truss. 

leads  to  rather  a  clumsy  connection  ;  there- 
fore the  bolt  and  nut  method  shown  at  Figs. 
461  and  462  is  adopted  for  securing  the  tie- 
beam  and  king-post  together.  g 


Fig.  467. — Isometric  View  of  Lower  End  of  King- 
posts and  Portion  of  Tie-beam. 

i 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


125 


Fig.  463  shows  part  plan  of  trusses, 
ridge,  and  hips.  Fig.  464  shows  the  meet- 
ing of  the  purlins,  which  are  notched  out 
for  the  hip.  When  this  is  deep  there  is  no 
notc^hing,  the  full  ends  of  the  purhns  but- 
ting against  it.  Fig.  465  shows  the  tusk 
tenon  joint  between  the  tie-beams,  with 
necessary  straps  and  bolts  ;  also  the  con- 
nection of  king-posts  and  straps  and  bolts 
at  head  and  at  c.  Fig.  466  is  part  elevation 
of  main  truss.  Fig.  467  shows  the  lower  ends 
of  king-posts  and  portions  of  tie-beam. 


Dragon  Tie  at  Foot  of  Hip  Rafter. 

A  dragging  tie,  or  dragon  tie  or  beam 
(Figs.  468  and  469),  is  a  framework  at  the 
lower  end  of  a  hip  rafter,  in  the  angle  of  the 
building,  connecting  it  with  the  wall-plates 
in  such  a  way  as  to  resist  the  thrust  of  the 
hip  rafter.  The  foot  of  the  hip  rafter  is 
halved,  notched,  stepped,  or  tenoned  into 


Fig.  468. 

Ifigs.  468  and  469. — Plan  and  Sectional  Elevation 
showing  Dragon  Tie,  Angle  Tie,  and  Hip  for 
Angle  Ox  Roof  with  Overhanging  Eaves. 


TIMBER  ROOFS.  127 


128 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY 


the  dragging  tie,  which  is  notched  at  one 
end  on  to  the  wall-plates,  at  the  angle 
where  they  are  halved  together,  and  at  the 
other  end  is  attached  to  the  angle  tie  or 


Fig.  478. — Conventional  View  of  Joints  at  A 
(Fig.  473). 

brace  by  means  of  a  tusk  tenon  secured  by 
a  pin  or  wedge,  the  angle  tie  being  notched 
over  the  wall-plates  to  keep  it  in  place. 
There  is  more  than  one  method  of  construct- 
ing this  joint.  The  dragon  piece  and  angle 
tie  should  be  used  in  all  hipped  roofs,  al- 
though in  small  roofs  it  may  be  of  a  simpler 
construction,  such  as  a  batten  nailed  diagon- 
ally across  the  plates,  the  hip  rafter  notching 


Fig.  479. 


Fig.  480. 


Figs.  479  and  480.— Enlarged  Details  of 
Joints  at  A  (Fig.  473). 


should  be  noted  that  in  the  plan  the  hip  is 
not  shown. 

Queen = post  Trusses. 

The  queen-post  trusses  are  suitable  for 
spans  of  30  ft.  and  more.  Suitable  scant- 
lings or  sizes  for  the  different  members  are 


Fig.  481. — Conventional  View  of  Stirrup-Iron, 
Gibs  and  Cotters  at  A  (Fig.  473). 

shown  in  the  table  on  p.  121.  Fig.  473 
is  the  elevation  of  a  queen-post  truss  for 
a  clear  span  of  34  ft.  Many  of  the  details 
of  this  truss  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
king-post  truss  already  fully  illustrated. 
The  principal  differences  are  that  in  this 
case  a  horizontal  straining  beam  has  to  be 
jointed  to  the  queen-posts ;  the  joint  is 
clearly  shown  by  Figs.  474  to  476,  the  iron- 
work being  illustrated  separately  by  Fig. 
477.  The  joint  and  stirrup  at  the  foot  of 
the  queen-post  are  illustrated  by  Figs.  478 
to  480. 


Figs.  482  and  483. — Enlarged  Detail  of  Foot  of 
Truss,  B  (Fig.  473). 


on  to  it.    Fig.  470  is  a  conventional  view  Fig.  481  is  a  conventional  view  of  the 

showing  the  parts  separated.  stirrup -iron,  gibs,  and  cotters. 

Figs.  471  and  472  illustrate  a  case  where  The  joint  of  the  principal  rafter  at  its 

the  hip  does  not  overhang  the  walls.    It  foot  with  the  tie-beam  is  shown  in  elevation 


TIMBER  ROOFS.  129 


and  section  by  Figs.  482  and  483,  and  con- 
ventionally by  Fig.  484,  the  heel  strap 
being  shown  by  Fig.  485. 


and  491),  where  the  purlins  are  shown 
mitred  together  and  also  notched  out  to 
receive  the  hip.    This  latter  would  also  be 


Fig,  484, — Conventional  View  of  Joint  between 
Principal  Rafter  and  Tie-beam. 

The  joints  between  principal  rafter,  strut, 
and  purUn  are  illustrated  by  Fig.  486. 

At  Fig.  487  is  shown  the  hipped  end  of  a 
queen-post  roof,  and  Figs.  488  and  489  show 
part  sectional  elevation  and  plan  of  same. 
The  upper  purlin  at  the  end  partly  rests  on 


Fig.  486. — Conventional  View  of  Joints  at  Head 
of  Strut,  Cogging  of  Purlin,  etc. 


Fig.  485, — Conventional 
View  of  Heel  Strap  and 
Plate  for  fastening  Prin- 
cipal Rafter  to  Tie-beam, 


Fig,  487. — Conventional  View  showing  General  Construction  of  Queen-post  Roof  Truss 

with  Hipped  End. 


the  straining  beam.  The  upper  ends  of 
the  queen-posts  are  cut  to  receive  the  purhns, 
as  shown  by  the  conventional  view  (Figs.  490 


notched  out  part  of  its  depth  so  as  to  fit  in 
with  the  purlins  in  this  case. 

The  method  of  connecting  the  half-truss- 


130 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


^^^^^^^^ 

Fl 

F 

i 

Fig.  488.— Part  Sectional  Elevation  on  Line  DD  (Fig.  489)  of  Queen-post  Truss  with  Hipped  End. 


fig.  489.— Part  Plan  of  Queen-post  Truss  with  Hipped  End,  showing  Timbers— A,  Main  Truss, 
B,  Half  Truss,  both  being  connected  at  C. 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


131 


to  the  main  truss  is  shown  by  the  part 
elevation  and  plan  (Figs.  492  and  493) ;  the 
construction  will  be  more  clearly  understood 


Fig.  490. — General  View  showing  Construction 
at  Heads  of  Queen-posts. 

Fig.  491. — General  View  showing  Construction  at 
Feet  of  Queen-posts  and  Connection  of 
Tie-beams. 

from  Fig.  491,  the  tie-beam  of  the  former 
being  connected  to  that  of  the  latter  by  a 


Fig.  494.— Forms  of  Joints  at  Head  of  Queen- 
posts. 

short  Stub-tenon,  and  both  being  further 
secured  by  iron  straps  and  bolts.  No  doubt 
this  method  is  preferable  to  the  old-fashioned 


one  of  connecting  the  tie-beams  by  tusk 
mortise  and  tenon  joints,  and  tightening  up 
with  keys.    Other  straps  and  connections 


Fig.  492. — Enlarged  Sectional  Elevation  at  Head 
and  Foot  of  Queen-post. 
Fig.  493. — Part  Plan  of  Hip  and  Purlins. 

are  clearly  shown.  At  Fig.  494  suitable 
forms  of  joints  are  shown  for  the  heads  of 
the  queen-posts,  and  at  Fig.  495  a  method 


Fig.  495. — Joints  between  Hips  and  Ridge. 

of  fixing  the  hips  to  the  ridge  is  illustrated. 
What  is  known  as  a  king-  and  queen-post 
truss  is  shown  by  Fig.  ,496  ;  this  is  suitable 
for  a  span  of  50  ft. 


132 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Other  forms  of  joints  at  head  of  queen- 
posts,  etc.,  are  shown  by  Figs.  497  and 
498,  the  latter  representing  the  better 
design,    because    the    main    stresses  are 


have  only  a  two-way  strap,  as  illustrated 
at  Fig.  501.. 

Securing  Principal  Rafter  to  Tie=beam. 

Two  ways  of  securing  the  principal  rafter 


Fig,  498. 


Fig.  497. 


Figs.  497  and  498. — 
Alternative  Methods  of 
forming  Joints  at  Heads 
of  Queen-posts. 


Fig.  496. — Half  Elevation  of  King-  and  Queen-post  Roof  Truss  for  50-Feet  Span. 


bounded  by  the  tie-beam,  by  the  prin- 
cipal rafters  up  to  the  straining  beam,  and 
by  the  straining  beam  itself.  The  portion 
of  the  truss  above  the  straining  beam  has 
only  a  very  small  stress  upon  it,  and  it  is 
therefore  unnecessary  to  make  the  upper 
ends  of  the  principal  rafters  of  such  large 
scantling  as  the  lower  ends,  which  form 
an  essential  part  of  the  truss. 

Figs.  499  and  500  illustrate  a  form  of  heel 
strap  ;  this  having  been  fixed  with  a  bolt  and 
nut,  a  hardwood  or  metal  wedge  is  driven 
in  between  it  and  the  principal  rafter  as 


wetdce: 


to  the  tie-beam  are  in  occasional  use.  There 
may  be  a  bolt  as  in  Fig.  455,  or  a  heel  strap 
as  in  Fig.  499.   The  bolt  and  nut  are  better 


HEIEL  SI  RAP 


HEEL  5TRAP 


BOLT  *  rsUT 
Fig.  499.  Fig.  500. 

Fig.  499. — Heel  Strap  connected  to  Tie-beam  by 
Bolt,  and  tightened  to  Principal  Rafter  by  Wedge. 

Fig.  500.— General  View  of  Strap  and  Bolt. 

shown  ;  but  this  is  not  quite  such  a  good 
form  as  that  illustrated  at  Fig.  459,  page  122. 
Occasionally  the  head  of  a  king-post  may 


Fig.  501.— Two-way  Strap  for  Head  of  King-post. 

than  this  form  of  heel  strap,  which  cannot  be 
properly  tightened  ;  the  bolt  may  be  tight- 
ened, but  it  weakens  the  timbers  a  trifle  by 
loss  of  sectional  area,  which,  however,  is  not 
serious ;  the  stirrup  weakens  the  timber 
least,  and  can  be  tightened  up  readily. 


1 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


133 


Joint  between   Principal   Rafter  and 
Tie = beam. 

In  designing  the  joint  between  the  principal 
rafter  and  the  tie-beam,  the  object  should  be 
to  obtain  the  best  form  of  resistance,  it  being 
noted  that  the  principal  rafter  and  the 
portion  of  the  tie-beam  beyond  that  rafter 
are  in  compression.  If  through  faulty  roof 
design  it  were  possible  for  the  principal 
rafters  to  sag,  in  the  case  of  Fig.  502  the 


Fig.  502. — Improper  Way  of  forming  Joint  at 
Toe  of  Principal  Rafter. 

rafter  would  ride  on  the  heel  a  (Fig.  503),  and 
the  toe  B  would  rise  and  split  off  the  abut- 
ting piece  c  ;  not  admitting  the  possibility 
of  sagging,  even  then  the  greatest  thrust 
would  be  to  the  point,  and  there  would  still 
be  the  danger  of  shearing  or  splitting.  In 
the  case  of  Fig.  504  (where  the  abutting 
surface  is  at  right  angles  to  the  back  of  the 


Fig.  503. — Result  of  forming  Joint  as  at 
Fig,  502. 

principal  rafter),  sagging,  were  it  possible, 
would  cause  the  rafter  to  ride  on  the  heel 
D  (Fig.  505)  and  the  toe  to  slide  along  f  g, 
and  there  would  be  no  tendency  to  split  off 
the  abutting  piece  h.  Regarding  the  thrust 
of  a  perfectly  rigid  rafter,  the  abutment 
shown  in  Fig.  504  is  better  than  that  shown 
in  Fig.  502.  The  compromise  (Fig.  506), 
in  which  the  angle  is  bisected,  is  the  best  form 
for  a  properly  designed  roof,  there  being 
an  equal  abutment  of  fibres.  Bolts  and 
plates  or  straps  affect  the  shape  of  the  joint. 

Cambering  of  Tie-beam. — The  term  "  cam- 
bering," as  applied  to  carpentry,  means  the 


binding  of  a  beam  so  that  its  centre  is  raised 
above  the  ends,  causing  it  to  assume  an 
arc  or  arch -like  form,  the  object  being  to 
prevent  sagging  of  the  middle  below  the 


Fig.  504.— Usual  Form  of  Joint  at  Toe  of 
Principal  Rafter. 

straight  line  joining  the  ends  when  the 
beam  is  fully  loaded.  The  following  is  a 
good  example  of  the  object  to  be  obtained 
by  cambering  :  When  a  king-post  truss  is 
being  prepared,  the  king-post  is  made  a 
little  short,  to  the  extent  of  about  J  in.  for 
every  10  ft.  of  span.    Then,  when  the  truss 


Fig,  505.— Opening  of  Joint  caused  by  Sagging  of 
Principal  Rafter  when  made  as  at  Fig.  504. 

is  put  together,  the  tie-beam  is  forced  up  to 
the  shoulders  of  the  king-post  and  held  fast 
by  means  of  a  bolt  or  stirrup  strap  with  gibs 
and  cotters,  already  shown.  The  object  is 
twofold.  This  bending  of  the  tie-beam 
shortens  it  to  a  slight  extent,  thus  bringing 
the  feet  of  the  principal  rafters  a  little 


Fig,  506. — Best  Angle  for  Toe  of  Principal 
Rafter, 

nearer  together,  and  tightening  up  the  joints 
of  the  truss  so  that  each  shall  take  its  proper 
bearing,  and  also  making  each  respective 
member  take  its  share  of  the  load  without 


134 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


sagging  or  distortion  ;  in  short,  making  the 
truss  rigid  and  firm 

Mansard  Roof  Trusses. 

The  Mansard  form  of  roof  takes  its  name 
from  Fran9ois  Mansard,  a  French  architect 
who  was  born  in  1598  and  died  in  1666.  It 
is  essentially  a  roof  with  two  pitches,  and 
is  usually  employed  as  a  means  of  economis- 
ing space.    There  are  one  or  two  regular 


desired  height  for  the  ceiUng  line,  which 
is  shown  as  8  ft.  From  c  d  set  off  angles 
at  30  degrees  meeting  in  G,  which  is  the 
outline  of  upper  portion  of  the  roof.  If 
it  is  desired  to  raise  the  height  of  the  storey, 
as  shown  as  10  ft.,  the  upper  part  of  the 
roof  becomes  smaller,  the  main  span  remain- 
ing the  same  as  do  also  the  lower  pitches. 
One  of  the  usual  ways  of  constructing  a 
Mansard  truss  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  509, 
which  actually  shows  a  queen-post  truss 
surmounted  by  a  king-post  truss.  Fig.  510 
is  a  conventional  view  of  a  Mansard  roof, 


Fig.   507.— Belidor's  Method  of 
Setting  Out  Mansard  RooL 


30 


Fig.  508.— Practical  Method  of 
determining  Outline  of  Mansard 
Roof  according  to  Height  of 
Storey. 


60 


methods  of  getting  the  two  slopes.  Fig.  507 
shows  Belidor's  system.  On  the  line  equal 
to  the  span  describe  a  semicircle.  Divide 
the  circumference  into  five  parts,  numbering 
the  points  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  as  shown.  Join 
pomts  1  and  2  and  5  and  6.  Divide  the 
space  between  3  and  4  equally,  numbering 
the  point  7  ;  then  join  2  to  7  and  7  to  5. 
The  height  of  the  storey  is  often  the  practical 
consideration,  and  therefore  the  above 
method  is  not  always  so  applicable  as  that 
shown  at  Fig.  508.  Set  out  the  span  and 
the  outhne  for  the  lower  part  of  the  roof 
at  an  angle  of  60  to  70  degrees  (a  and  b)  ; 
then  draw  the  horizontal  line  c  d  at  the 


34  0 


showing  the  complete  timbering.  It  illus- 
trates a  case  where  the  roof  is  designed 
to  provide  a  room  with  as  large  a  floor 
area  as  possible,  this  being  often  desirable 
for  trade  purposes.  An  enlarged  detail  of 
the  foot  of  the  main  tie-beam,  principal 
rafter  and  queen-post,  with  section  through 
parapet,  gutter  and  wall,  is  given  at  Figs. 
511  and  512.  There  should  be  a  stanchion 
or  similar  support  a  (Fig.  510),  except  in 
small  spans,  if  the  floor  is  laden  above  the  or- 
dinary. A  dormer  is  provided,  the  timbers 
of  which  are  connected  with  the  rafters,  etc.^ 
as  shown.  The  ceiling  joists  are  fixed  to  the 
top  edge  of  the  upper  tie-beam  ;  the  main 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


135 


Jig.  510.— General  View  showing  Timbering  of  Mansard  Roof,  with  Main  Tie-beam  acting  as 

Floor  Binder. 


13(j 


CAKPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


tie-beam  acts  as  a  binder  for  the  floor, 
the  joists  being  supported  by  it.  Two 
good  methods  of  doing  this  are  shown 
by  Figs.  512  and  513  ;  the  joists  at  a  are 
notched  out  to  fit  on  the  tie-beam,  and 
their  lower  edges  are  further  supported 
by  a  fillet  fixed  to  the  beam  ;   fillet  and 


Fig.  511. 

Gutter,  Fascia  and  Dentil  Brackets. 


Pig.  5lli— Joint  of  Tie-beam  and  Principal  Rafter,  also  Section 
through  Parapet  and  Gutter.  Fig,  512. — Joint  at  Foot  of 
Queen-post  and  Tie-beam.  Fig.  513. — Section  through  Tie- 
beam  :  A,  Under  Edge  of  Joist  supported  on  Fillet ;  B,  Alter- 
native Method  of  Housing  Lower  Half  of  Joist  into  Tie-beam. 
Fig.  514.  ^Conventional  View  showing  Tie-beam  Housed  to 
receive  Joist  (as  at  B,  Fig.  513).  Fig.  515. — Joints  at  Foot 
of  Upper  Truss  with  Section  through  Pole  Plate,  Wooden 
Fig.  516.— Elevation  of  Gutter,  Fascia  and  Dentil  Brackets, 


i 


TIMBER  EOOFS. 


137 


beam  may  be  finished  ofi  with  a  moulding  as 
shown.  At  B  the  joists  are  notched  on 
to  the  tie-beam  and  their  lower  halves 


tie-beam  and  principal  rafter,  also  section 
through  curb  plate,  wooden  gutter,  fascia 
and  dentil  brackets  :    an  elevation  of  a 


Fig.  517. — Mansard  Roof  constructed  without  Trusses. 


housed  in,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to 
Fig.  514.  The  detail  figures  show  general 
sizes,  which,  of  course,  would  be  increased  or 
diminished  according  to  the  loading.  Fig. 
515  shows  the  connection  at  the  head  of 
the    principal    rafter,   queen-post,  upper 


portion  of  the  latter  is  given  by  Fig.  516. 
The  head  of  the  queen-post  and  upper  tie- 
beam  may  be  strapped  together  as  indicated 
by  the  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  515,  or  the 
arrangement  as  shown  by  Fig.  520  (p.  138) 
may  be  adopted. 


138 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Mansard     Roof    without    Trusses. — Of 

late  years  the  custom  has  increased  to 
dispense  with  trusses  in  roofs  of  moderate 
spans.  The  ends  of  the  purlins  15  ft. 
to  35  ft.  long  can  be  carried  on  party  or 
division  walls,  and  the  top  storey  is  divided 
into  rooms  by  partitions.  Fig.  517  repre- 
sents such  an  example  ;  the  floor  joists  are 
fixed  to  plates  at  each  end,  and  rest  at 


Fig.  518. 


-Detail  of  Junction  at  Lower  and 
Upper  Rafters. 


their  centres  on  the  partition  wall  below,  thus 
acting  as  ties  to  the  back  and  front  walls.  A 
plate  which  receives  the  lower  ends  of 
the  rafters  is  fixed  to  the  top  edges  of  the 
joists.    The  top  ends  of  these  rafters  are 


Fig.  519.— Weak  Method  of  Construction  at  Head 
of  Queen-post  in  Mansard  Roof. 

fixed  to  a  curb  plate,  upon  which  the  ends  of 
the  upper  rafters  and  the  ends  of  the  ceiling 
joists  are  fixed,  the  latter  tying  in  th.e 
plates  and  thus  preventing  any  forcing-out 
action  of  the  rafters.  The  heads  of  the 
studs  are  also  fixed  into  this  plate,  the  lower 
ends  of  the  studs  being  connected  to  a  sill 


fixed  to  the  joists.  The  upper  rafters 
have  a  central  bearing  on  purlins,  and 
the  ceiling  joists  are  connected  to  a  binding 
piece  which  is  tied  to  the  purlins  as  shown, 
the  joists  also  being  fixed  to  the  partition 
head.  Although  there  is  no  truss,  clearly 
the  whole  is  triangulated  and  supported  to 
form  a  substantial  roof. 

Principles  in  Designing  a  Mansard  Truss. 
— In  considering  the  stresses  borne  by  the 
members  of  a  Mansard  truss,  it  might 
be  thought  that  the  queen  -  posts  are 
nothing   more   than   mere   vertical  posts 


Fig.  520. — Construction  at  the  Head  of  Lower 
and  Upper  Truss. 

carrying  a  king-post  truss,  whereas  the 
object  of  a  king-  or  queen-post  is  to  support 
the  tie-beam  and  prevent  it  from  sagging, 
thereby  sustaining  tensional  stress.  Actually, 
however,  no  compression  whatever  is  thrown 
on  the  queen-posts,  however  they  may  be 
placed,  as  the  lower  principal  rafter  takes 
all  the  thrust  from  the  load  above,  whether 
that  load  be  a  lead  flat,  an  ordinary  purlin 
roof,  or  the  king-post  truss  of  a  Mansard 
roof  ;  and  as  a  matter  of  fact,  in  many 
Mansard  roofs  of  small  span  the  queen-posts 
are  omitted  altogether,  as  they  are  only 
necessary  when  the  lower  tie-beam  has  to 
be  supported  near  its  middle  for  the  pur- 
pose of  carrying  a  floor,  etc.  Queen-posts 
are  omitted,  for  instance,  when  the  purlin 
or  plate  which  takes  the  top  ends  of  the 
lower  common  rafters  and  the  bottom  ends 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


1:^9 


140 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


of  the  upper  rafters  is  supported  by  main 
walls,  intermediate  walls,  or  partitions  not 
more  than  about  15  ft.  apart,  this  arrange- 


the  whole  of  the  load  carried  by  the  upper 
truss  would  have  to  be  supported  by  the  cleat 
spiked  to  the  queen-post  and  the  stub  tenon 
on  the  end  of  the  upper  tie-beam  (Fig.  519), 
a  most  inefficient  support ;  the  e&ct  or 
stress  of  the  load  would,  of  course,  be  with- 
stood by  the  strut  or  principal  rafter  so 
long  as  the  connections  held  good,  as  the 
head  of  the  queen-post  merely  forms  a  con- 
venient abutment  for  connecting  the  two 
trusses.    The  designer  of  the  truss  shown 


Fig.  527.— Details  of  Roof  Truss 
for  40-ft.  Span  (Fig.  526). 


-^-0'  o" 


ment  rendering  the  construction  of  the 
lower  truss  unnecessary.  They,  however, 
are  an  advantage  constructively  in  another 
way,  as  they  afiord  a  means  of  triangulating 
the  enclosed  figure,  and  thus  rendering  the 
truss  immovable  by  wind  pressure.  Lest 
any  student  should  be  tempted  to  copy  a 
form  of  truss  (Fig.  519)  which  has  been 
proposed  as  an  improvement  on  the  ordinary 
Mansard  truss,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that 


Fig.  526.— Outline  of  Roof  Truss 
for  40-ft.  Span. 


by  Fig.  519  proceeded  on  the  false  assump- 
tion that  the  queen-posts  of  the  ordinary 
Mansard  were  in  compression,  and  his  system 
was  an  attempt  to  avoid  this.  However,  in 
an  ordinary  Mansard  truss,  the  head  of 
the  queen-post  is,  of  course,  a  direct  sup- 
port to  the  king-post  truss,  and  therefore 
carries  the  weight  of  that  truss  and  roofing, 
and  thus,  from  the  head  of  the  queen-post 
to  the  bottom  of  the  joint  (see  a,  Fig.  520), 


142 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


where  it  is  connected  with  the  lower  prin- 
cipal rafter,  is  in  compression — but  only 
this  portion.  The  compressional  stress  is 
then  transmitted  to  the  lower  principal 
rafter,   the  remainder  of  the  queen-post 


short ;  then  the  tie-beam  is  forced  to  the 
shoulders  of  the  queen-posts,  and  secured  by 
straps  or  bolts,  and  this  clearly  produces 
tension  in  the  queen-posts  from  their  con- 
nection with  the  tie-beam  to  the  shoulders 
of  the  principal  rafter  (a.  Fig.  520).  It  is 
also  to  be  noticed  that  the  connection 
between  the  queen-post  and  tie-beam  pre- 
vents an  inward  turning  action  which  would 


Fig.  532. — General  Outside  View  of  Apse  End  of  Collar  Beam  Truss  Roof. 


being  in  tension ;  this  may  be  curious, 
but  is  nevertheless  a  fact.  The  object  of 
the  tie-beam  is  to  extend  from  wall  to 
wall,  taking  the  ends  of  the  principal  rafters, 
and  thus  preventing  the  outward  thrust  of 
the  principal  rafters  on  the  walls,  which 
would  occur  if  a  tie-beam  were  not  used. 
Then,  to  prevent  the  tie-beam  sagging,  the 
queen-posts  run  down  to  it  and  support  it. 
When  these  trusses  are  properly  made, 
it  is  usual  to  have  the  queen-posts  a  little 


otherwise  take  place  (as  indicated  by  the 
arrow  in  Fig.  520)  about  the  top  of  the 
queen-post  (b.  Fig.  520),  by  the  inward 
thrust  on  it  by  the  lower  principal  rafter. 
This  quite  refutes  any  statement  that  the 
queen-posts,  instead  of  supporting  the  tie- 
beam,  add  their  load  to  it. 

Mansard  Roof  over  a  Room  with  an 
Arched  Ceiling. — Figs.  521  to  525  show  a 
Mansard  roof  designed  for  a  span  of  34  ft., 
the  room  having  an  arched  or  coved  ceiling 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


143 


which  is  intersected  by  circular-headed 
openings  for  windows.  The  figures  show 
the  construction  very  fully,  and  the  chief 
dimensions  are  figured.  The  ribs  for  the 
curved  ceiling  are  cut  to  shape  out  of 
6  in.  by  2  in.  stufi,  and  are  notched  to 
fillets  fixed  on  the  sides  of  the  purhns 
as  shown  at  h  (Fig.  521).  A  rib  built  up 
of  two  thicknesses  out  of  11  in.  by  1  in. 
is  fixed  on  each  side  of  the  truss  as  shown 
at  A  (Figs.  521  and  522)  to  take  the  laths 


50-ft.  span,  allowing  of  a  large  well-lighted 
room  being  formed  within  it,  34  ft.  wide  and 
24  ft.  high  from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling. 
The  ceiling  is  level  with  the  top  edge  of  the 
collar  c.  The  main  tie-beam  is  supported 
by  two  corridor  walls,  one  of  which  is  indi- 
cated at  D,  some  of  the  leading  dimensions 
being  given. 

Collar  Beam  Roof. — A  collar  beam  roof 
over  a  small  church  or  similar  building 
with  a  circular  apse  end  is  illustrated  by 


Fig.  533.— Part  Plan  of  Apse  End  of  Collar  Beam  Truss  Roof. 


and  plaster,  so  that  in  the  finished  ceiling 
a  panelled  and  moulded  rib  would  be  formed. 
The  construction  of  the  circular-headed 
window  opening  in  connection  with  the 
main  ceiling  is  clearly  shown  in  the  illus- 
trations. 

Open  Timber  Roofs. 

The  open  timber  roof  shown  by  Figs. 
526  and  527  is  suitable  for  covering  a 
room  40  ft.  wide.  Figs.  528  to  531  illustrate 
a  good  example  of  construction  for  a  roof 


Figs.  532  to  538.  The  circular  end  has' 
two  half  trusses  framed  and  fastened  to 
the  main  truss  ;  the  king-post  is  common 
to  the  three,  being  cut  to  the  form  shown 
at  F  (Fig.  537)  to  receive  the  heads  of  the 
principal  rafters.  Only  each  alternate 
common  rafter  is  carried  up  to  the  vertex. 
The  main  collar  beam  and  the  two  half 
beams  are  mortised  and  tenoned  together 
as  shown  at  g  (Fig.  537),  and  further 
secured  by  a  strong  three-way  strap  bolted 
to  the  top  surfaces  (Fig.  538).    The  curved 


144 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


purlins  would  be  made  out  of  two  thick- 
nesses with  joints  breaking.  The  leading 
dimensions  will  be  found  clearly  stated  in 
the  figures. 

Hammer  Beam  Roofs. — Figs.  539  to 
554  fully  illustrate  the  roofing  to  a  church. 
The  roof  to  the  nave  is  supported  by 
beam  trusses  of  simple  construction.  The 
dimensions  of  the  main  members  are  as 
follow  : — Principal  rafters,  hammer  beam, 
purhns  and  collar,  10  in.  by  7  in.  ;  ribs  out 
of  stufi  4  in.  thick.  A  hammer  beam 
truss  of  a  good  ornamental  design  is  shown 


securely  lashed  to  the  principal  to  prevent 
its  being  strained  during  the  operation  of 
hoisting.  Treble-sheave  blocks  will  be  ample 
for  the  purpose,  seeing  that  each  rope  will 


Fig.   534. — Longitudinal  Section 
through  Apse  End  of  Collar 
Beam  Truss  Roof. 


by  Fig.  555.  Details  of  construction  are 
illustrated  by  Figs.  556  to  560. 

Raising^  Roof  Principal. 

For  raising  into  position  a  hammer  beam 
principal  weighing  about  1  ton,  two  up- 
right poles  may  be  used  ;  and  a  horizontal 
pole,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  561,  should  be 


have  to  lift  only  about  half  a  ton  ;  if  double- 
sheave  blocks  are  used,  the  time  occupied 
in  hoisting  will  be  lessened,  but  more  than 
one  man  must  pull  at  each  rope.  A  IJ-in. 
good  quality  hemp  rope  will  lift  11  cwt. 
easily  with  an  ample  margin  of  safety.  A 
method  recommended  by  an  experienced 
carpenter  for  raising  into  position  a  hammer- 


] 


i 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


145 


beam  truss  of  50-ft.  span  is  as  follows  : — 
A  derrick  is  erected  and  held  in  nearly  an 
upright  position  by  guy  ropes.  A  block  and 
tackle  are  secured  to  the  top  of  the  derrick, 
at  the  lower  end  of  which  a  single  block  is 


required  by  men  working  the  crab;  To 
prevent  the  truss  swaying  and  doing  damage 
during  ascent,  it  is  guided  by  workmen 
holding  ropes  tied  to  it.  The  truss  is  next 
placed  as  nearly  as  possible  in  its  position, 
then  plumbed,  adjusted,  and  stayed  tem- 
porarily with  pieces  of  timber  attached  to 
the  plate,  or  other  convenient  fixing,  until 


Fig.  535. — Part  Cross  Section 
and  Part  Elevation  of  Main 
Truss. 


fixed.  The  other  end  of  the  tackle  is  con- 
nected to  the  truss,  and  the  free  end  of  the 
cord  passes  through  the  top  block  and  down 
through  the  single  pulley  fixed  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  derrick,  from  which  the  cord  is 
continued  and  connected  to  a  crab.  The 
truss  is  now  gradually  raised  to  the  height 

7 


it  can  be  connected  to  others  by  purlins, 
ridge,  etc.  At  the  present  time  derrick 
cranes  are  frequently  used  for  hoisting,  in 
which  cases  the  trusses  would  be  raised, 
guided,  and  placed  in  position  more  speedily 
than  by  the  method  above  described  of 
using  a  block  and  tackle. 


deceive  Priuoipal  Eafters  to  Upper  End  of  King-post  to  Mam  and  Half  Trusses^  F,g.  537.  Jomta 
at  Bottom  End  of  King-post  and  Half  Collars  with  Collar  to  Mam  Truss  (G). 


i 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


147 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


149 


Composite  Roof  Trusses. 

A  composite  roof  truss  usually  has  wooden 
rafters  and  tie-beam  and  iron  bolts  with 
wooden  struts.  Sometimes  it  has  an  iron 
bent  tie-rod  instead  of  a  tie-beam.  The 


rod  replaces  the  tie-beam,  the  construction 
is  as  shown  in  Figs.  564  to  568.  A  king-bolt 
truss  with  struts  (Fig.  569)  is  suitable  for  a 
span  of  from  20  ft.  to  30  ft.  A  queen-bolt 
truss  (Figs.  570  to  572)  is  adapted  for  any 


Fig.  556. 


Fig.  559. 


Fig.  560. 

F:g.  555. — Ornamental  Design  for  Hammer-Beam  Truss.  Fig.  556. — Section  of  Hammer-Beam  Truss 
through  A  A.  Fig.  557. — Plan  of  Pendant.  Fig.  558. — Section  through  Pendant.  Fig.  559. — 
Detail  of  Joint  at  C  (Fig.  555).       Fig.  560.— Detail  of  Joint  at  D  (Fig.  555). 


simplest  type  is  the  king-bolt  truss  (Figs. 
562  and  563),  a  simple  span  roof  with  tie- 
beam  and  king-bolt ;  this  is  suitable  for  a 
span  between  15  ft.  and  20  ft.    When  a  tie- 


span  between  30  ft.  and  40  ft.,  as  is  also 
the  king-  and  queen-bolt  truss  shown  by 
Figs.  573  and  574.  When  a  composite 
roof  having  an  iron  tie-rod  is  strutted,  the 


{For  illustrations  see  jiTeviovs  paije.) 

Fig.  545. — Transverse  Section  showing  Inside  of  Circular  End  Roof  over  Apse.  Fig.  546. — Plan  of 
Timbers  to  Circular  End  over  Apse.  Fig.  547. — Joint  at  Foot  of  Bracket  at  A  (Fig.  545). 
Fig.  548. — Joints  at  End  of  Hammer  Beam,  B  (Fig.  545).  Fig.  549. — Joints  between  Principal 
Rafter,  Hammer  Beam  and  Wall  Piece.  Fig.  550. — Joints  between  Purlins  and  Principal  Rafters. 
Fig.  551. — Plan  of  Part  of  Curved  Purlin  indicating  Method  of  Building  Up.  Fig.  552. — Conven- 
tional View  of  Curved  Purlin  showing  Method  of  Construction.  Fig.  553. — Halving  at  Heads  of 
Principal  Rafters.       Fig.  554. — Joint  between  Collars  and  Principal  Rafters. 


TIMBER  ROOFS 


152 


CARPENTKY  AND  JOINERY. 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


153 


connections  are  designed  as  in  Figs.  576  to 
584. 

Composite  Truss  for  Flat  Roof. 

For  the  span  of  47  ft.  between  pier  walls 
shown  in  Fig.  585,  the  "  Howe  "  form  of  truss 
illustrated  is  quite  as  suitable  as  the  queen- 
post  truss  sometimes  adopted.  It  is  pro- 
portioned to  carry  a  6-lb.  lead  flat,  with 
side  slopes  battened  and  tiled,  as  well  as  a 
plaster  ceiling  supported  on  2-in.  by  6-in. 
ceiling  joists,  suspended  from  the  lower 
chord  or  tie-beam,  which,  without  over- 
stressing  the  truss  proper,  can  be  of  an  en- 
riched class  of  decoration,  suitable  for  a 


Fig.  589.— Detail  at  D  (Fig.  585) 


public  hall  or  concert  room.  Allowance 
has  been  made  for  a  snow-load  of  5  lb.  per 
square  foot,  and  for  a  wind  pressure  of  26  lb. 
per  square  foot  on  the  side  slopes.  Fig.  585 
is  a  half- elevation  ;  Fig.  586,  a  detail  at  a 
(Fig.  585)  at  the  top  of  the  principal  rafter  ; 
Fig.  587,  a  section  on  the  line  b  b  (Fig.  586)  ; 
Fig.  588,  a  detail  at  c  (Fig.  585)  at  the 
junction  of  principal  rafter  and  tie-beam  ; 
Fig.  589,  a  detail  at  d  (Fig.  585)  at  foot  of 
brace  ;  and  Fig.  590,  a  section  on  the  line 
E  E  (Fig.  589).  The  details  are  as  follow  : 
Width  between  pier  walls,  47  ft.  ;  extreme 
length  of  lower  chord  (tie-beam),  50  ft.  1  in. ; 
between  external  points  of  principal  rafters, 
48  ft.  4  in.,  which  is  divided  into  six  panels 
8  ft.  wide  and  8  ft.  high  on  the  centre  lines  ; 
hence  all  braces  are  inclined  at  45°,  approxi- 
mately, and  the  tie-rods  are  vertical.  The 

7* 


trusses  are  spaced  10  ft.  apart,  and  the 
camber  is  |  in.  for  every  10  ft.  between  the 
wall  and  the  centre  rod.  This  will  represent, 
roughly,  a  IJ-in.  rise  at  the  centre,  which 
can  be  obtained  by  springing  the  lower  chord 
and  marking  shoulder  lines  on  the  braces 
when  framing.  The  material  may  be  Memel 
fir  or  pitch-pine.  The  stuff  is  framed  up 
from  the  saw  to  8  in.  by  8  in.  for  principal 
rafters,  top  chord,  and  second  panel  braces, 
with  8-in.  by  6-in.  middle  braces,  and 
8-in.  by  8J-in.  or  9-in.  lower  chord  or  tie- 
beam.  The  round  iron  tie-rods  have 
diameters  as  follow  :  Outside  rod,  If  in.  ; 
second  rod,  IJ  in.  ;  and  centre  rod,  1  in.  The 
rods  are  threaded  at  both  ends  for  hexagon 
or  square  nuts,  with  2i-in.  by  J-in.  plates, 
7  in.  long,  to  each  nut,  the  lower  plates  being 
let  into  the  under-  side  of  the  tie-beam,  as 
shown  at  Fig.  589.  The  braces  are  bolted 
to  the  chords  with  f-in.  bolts.  The  feet 
of  the  principal  rafters  are  further  secured 


Fig.  590.— Section  through  E  E  (Fig.  589). 

with  double  bolt-ended  straps,  forged  out 
of  2J-in.  by  J-in.  fiat  plate-iron,  with  top 
plates  (of  the  same  dimensions)  drilled 
to  receive  the  f-in.  bolt  ends.  At  the 
head  of  the  principal  rafters,  an  angle 
plate  of  f-in.  iron,  4  in.  wide,  is  drilled  for 
f-in.  bolts  and  nuts,  an  auxiliary  angle  plate 
being  placed  at  right  angles,  to  line  with 
the  purlins,  and  bolted  up  with  the  corner 
plate  mentioned  above.  This  plate  is 
bolted  to  the  under  side  of  the  purlins  with 
two  J-in.  bolts,  each  10  in.  long.  The  pur- 
lins are  notched  J  in.  on  to  the  top  chord. 
In  the  half -elevation  (Fig.  585),  the  outer 
purlin  is  shown  partly  removed,  in  order  that 
the  angle  plate  on  the  truss  may  be  seen. 
Details  of  the  lead  flat,  the  tiled  slope,  and 
the  plaster  ceiling  are  clearly  shown  in  the 
illustrations.    A  gutter  is  provided  to  drain 


154 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


the  lead  flat,  with  down  pipes  leading  to 
cesspools  at  the  lowest  levels  of  the  bottom 
gutters.  The  lead  apron  is  copper-nailed 
under  the  lap  oi  the  roof-sheeting.  This 
board  may  be  rounded  on  the  edge  and  re- 
bated out  to  the  thickness  of  the  lead  apron  ; 
or,  alternatively,  a  thinner  outside  board 
may  be  used.  A  fascia  board  (IJ  in.)  is 
nailed  to  the  end  of  the  rafters  to  serve  as 
backing  when  dressing  the  lead  apron,  w^hich 


Belfast,  Irish,  or  Bowstring  Truss. 

The  Belfast,  Irish,  or  bowstring  roof  (Fig. 
591)  is  a  cheap  form  of  construction  exten- 
sively used  for  large  spans.  The  truss  con- 
sists of  the  sole-piece  a,  made  double,  as 
shown,  of  two  pieces  of  9-in.  by  If-in. 
pitch-pine  ;  the  bows  b,  also  double,  are  of 
3-in.  by  IJ-in.  pitch-pine,  bent  to  the  curve, 
and  struts  or  lattices  c,  of  3-in.  by  |-in. 
spruce,  passing  between  the  sole-pieces  and 


Fig.  591. — Section  through  Belfast  Roof. 


222 


1^ 

Fig.  592.— 
Section 
through 
M  AB 

(Fig.  591) 


Fig.  593.— Enlarged  Detail  of  Foot  at  G 
(Fig.  591). 

comes  down  on  the  tiles  a  sufficient  distance 
to  cover  the  joints  at  the  lap.  The  side 
rafters,  2^  in.  by  5  in.,  are  bird's-mouthed 
on  to  the  pole  plate,  which  is  secured  to  the 
tie-beam  with  four  coach  screws  (each  9  in. 
long),  and  has  a  bearing  on  the  brickwork 
of  the  main  wall.  The  scale  of  Fig.  585 
is  y\  in.  to  1  ft.,  and  the  other  illustrations 
(Figs.  586  to  590)  are  reproduced  to  a  scale 
of  I  in.  to  1  ft. 


Fig.  594.— Enlarged  Detail  of  Ventilator  of 
Belfast  Roof. 

bows,  and  clipping  the  purlins.  The^'"  are 
usually  put  together  with  wire  nails,  one- 
half  being  laid  out  and  nailed  together,  and 
the  other  half  of  bows  and  tie-beam  or  sole- 
piece  put  on  top  and  nailed  together.  Rough 
timber  is  generally  used.  The  purlins  d, 
at  2-ft.  centres,  are  usually  double,  about 
3 J  in.  by  \\  in.,  and  are  covered  with  |-in. 
rebated  or  tongued  and  grooved  boarding 
E,  and  roofing  felt  well  lapped  at  the  joints. 


156 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY 


Fig.  600. 


158 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


well  coated  with  varnish,  and  sanded.  The 
trusses  are  most  usually  made  by  the  local 
felt  manufacturers,  of  which  there  are 
several  large  firms  in  Belfast.    The  trusses 


Fig.  609. 


Fig.  611. 


Fig.  606. — Cross  Section  showing  Elevation  of 
Half  Truss.  Fig.  607.— Part  Longitudinal 
Section  of  Truss  through  C  C.  Fig.  608.— 
Head  of  King-post  and  Collar  (D  and  E,  Fig. 
607).  Fig.  609.— Conventional  View  at  F. 
Fig.  610.— Conventional  View  at  G.  Fig.  611. 
— Conventional  View  at  H. 


are  used  for  spans  up  to  70  ft.,  spaced  at 
6-ft.  to  9-ft.  centres  ;  that  shown  by  Fig. 

591  is  suitable  for  a  span  of  from  30  ft.  to 
40  ft.,  with  a  rise  of  ^-^  of  span,  the  sole- 
piece  to  camber  4  in.  The  sole-piece  should 
be  cambered  not  less  than  1  in.  to  10  ft.  Fig. 

592  is  a  vertical  section  on  the  dotted  line  in 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


159 


Fig.  591,  showing  the  beaded  cover  board  f 
underneath  the  sole-piece.  Fig.  593  is  an 
enlarged  detail  at  g  (Fig.  591),  h  being  a 
wood  block  supporting  the  gutter.  Fig. 

594  is  an  enlarged  detail  of  the  ventilator, 
the  louvres  J  being  of  6-in.  by  1-in.  stuff  ; 
K  is  an  oak  rod  for  opening  the  louvres  ;  l, 
the  ridge  roll  of  2|-in.  by  li-in.  stuff ;  and 
M  the  ridge  of  6-in.  by  IJ-in.  stuff. 

Light  Truss  with  Bent  Rib. 

The  principle  of  the  truss  shown  in  Fig. 

595  was  applied  in  the  Bristol  Exhibition 
Buildings  in  1893.  The  bent  rib  is  built 
up  with  stuff  of  1  in.  or  IJ  in.  thickness,  each 
bent  separately  into  position  ;  the  whole  is 
held  together  with  iron  bands.    This  method 


8  in.,  centre  to  centre.  Fig.  597  illustrates 
the  method  of  bracing  the  trusses  together. 
If  a  neat  appearance  inside  is  desired,  grooved 
and  tongued  boarding  1  in.  thick  would  be 
most  suitable  as  an  inner  covering.  The 
outer  covering  should  be  of  felt,  corrugated 
iron,  or  similar  material.  Fig.  598  is  a  con- 
ventional view  of  a  little  more  than  half  of 
a  completed  truss.  Fig.  599  being  a  conven- 
tional view  of  the  two  separate  thicknesses, 
and  of  the  necessary  breaking  of  the  joints, 
etc.  The  several  parts  of  the  trusses  must 
be  nailed  together. 

Plank  Truss  Roof  to  Cover  Large 
Area. 

A  plank  truss  roof  to  cover  a  large  area 
such  as  a  drill  hall  or  similar  building  is 


Fig.  613. — Elevation  of  Irregular 
Hipped  Roof. 


Fig.  612. — Plan  of  Irregular  Hipped 
Roof. 


is  superior  in  many  respects  to  bending  a 
solid  rib,  distributing  any  weakness,  in  the 
shape  of  cross-grain,  knots,  etc.,  that  other- 
wise would  endanger  the  solid  rib,  and 
counteracting  any  excessive  strain  on  the 
convex  and  concave  surfaces  of  any  timber 
so  bent,  the  surfaces  being  in  length  as  re- 
quired by  the  sweep.  For  the  samejeasons 
the  rib  would  have  little  or  no  tendency  to 
revert  to  a  straight  position. 

Circular  Roof  constructed  of  Boards. 

At  Fig.  597  is  shown  a  transverse  section 
and  also  a  part  of  a  longitudinal  section 
through  a  circular  roof  made  cheaply  of 
boards.  The  ribs  of  the  trusses  are  made 
out  of  two  thicknesses  of  9-in.  by  IJ-in. 
boards,  and  are  finished  to  a  parallel  width 
of  6  in.  The  truss  braces  also  are  made  of 
6-in.  by  IJ-in.  stuff.  For  a  building  about 
47  ft.  long,  eleven  would  be  a  suitable  number 
of  trusses,  spacing  them  out  at  about  4  ft. 


68  0 


illustrated  by  Figs.  600  to  605.  This 
roof  has  been  designed  to  span  60  ft., 
the  trusses  being  12  ft.  apart.  The  princi- 
pal rafters,  collars  and  ribs  are  built  up  in 
three  thicknesses,  the  centre  planks  being 
11  in.  by  3  in.  and  the  two  outer  ones 
11  in.  by  2  in.  ;  the  braces  and  struts  are 
4J  in.  by  3  in.  and  are  notched  into  the 
central  planks  as  shown  by  the  conventional 
view  (Fig.  604).  The  whole  is  bolted 
together  by  7-in.  by  f-in.  bolts  and  nuts, 
as  illustrated.  The  feet  of  the  trusses 
are  fixed  into  an  11 -in.  by  4-in.  oak  sill  which 
runs  the  whole  length  of  each  side  of  the 
building.  The  purlins  are  8  in.  by  3  in., 
placed  about  3  ft.  apart,  and  are  connected 
to  the  principal  rafters  by  being  housed 
and  notched  as  shown  in  Fig.  605  ;  IJ-in. 
grooved  and  tongued  and  beaded  boarding 
is  fixed  to  the  purlins  to  form  the  ceihng, 
and  so  is  carried  across  level  with  the  top 
of  the  collar. 


160 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Roof  for  Large  Open  Shed. 

The  construction  of  a  roof  for  a  large  span 
shed  is  illustrated  by  Figs.  606  to  611. 
In  constructing  such  a  roof,  the  aim  should 


Fig.  614. — Method  of  Obtaining  Positions  of  Hips. 

be  to  avoid  compKcated  joints.  Therefore, 
the  collar  a  and  tie-beam  (Fig.  606)  are 
made  of  two  thicknesses,  the  former  being 
bolted  to  the  king-post,  brace  and  principal 
rafter,  and  the  latter  being  bolted  to  the 
brace  and  head  of  the  post.  The  general 
further  construction  is  clearly  shown  by 
the  detailed  views  (Figs.  608  to  611).  To 
prevent  the  shed  being  lifted  by  wind,  the 
post  should  be  let  some  distance  into  the 
ground  and  there  connected  by  ties  as 
indicated  at  k  (Figs.  606  and  607). 

Irregular  Hipped  Roof. 

There  are  several  ways  of  covering  a  build- 
ing erected  upon  an  irregular  site,  such  as 
that  shown  in  the  plan  (Fig.  612).  First  the 
ridge  may  be  kept  level,  and  the  rafters 
thrown  into  winding  ;  secondly,  the  planes 
of  the  sides  of  the  roof  may  be  kept  true, 
and  the  ridge  thrown  out  of  level,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  dotted  outline  in  Fig.  613  ; 


Fig.  615. — Detail  of  Irregular  Hipped  Roof  Truss. 

thirdly,  the  ridge  may  be  kept  level,  and 
the  inclinations  of  the  various  sides  of  the 
roof  made  to  differ  ;  and,  lastly,  the  method 
shown  in  the  accompanying  illustrations, 


which  is  perhaps  the  one  that  is  most  gener- 
ally useful,  may  be  adopted.  In  this  case 
the  roof  is  truncated — that  is,  it  is  treated 
as  if  the  upper  portion  contained  within  the 


! 

1   1   1  1  1   1  1  1 

'J.I  1 ,  '  '  ' 

1   1  1  1  1   1  1  < 

1 

1  1 

1  ' 

1  1  1 

1  ' 

i  ! 

1  '  1 

1 

1    1  . 

1      1      1      1  ■ 

Fig.  616.— Elevation  of  Corbelled  Wall. 

dotted  outline  in  Fig.  613  were  cut  off  ; 
then  a  flat  is  formed  on  the  top,  as  shown 
in  the  plan  by  the  triangle  a  b  c ;  the  in- 
clination of  the  lower  portion  being  every- 
where alike,  and  the  lengths  of  the  rafters 
being  the  same  on  each  of  the  four  sides. 

Setting  Out  the  Roof. — In  setting  out  a 
roof  of  this  description,  the  first  process, 
after  the  plan  of  the  roof  is  drawn  in  out- 
line, is  to  ascertain  the  position  of  the  hips. 


Fig.  617.— Method  of  Corbelling  Wall  to  carry 
Plate. 

The  method  is  shown  in  a  separate  diagram 
to  larger  scale  (Fig.  614).  Each  of  the  angles 
formed  by  the  wall  plates  is  bisected  as 
shown,  and  the  bisectors  (which  are  the 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


161 


seats  of  the  hips)  are  produced  until 
they  intersect,  the  point  of  intersection 
being  the  centre  hne  of  the  ridge,  or  ridges. 
Having  drawn  the  plans  of  the  hips,  from 
the  point  of  intersection  at  A  draw  lines  A  b 
and  A  c  parallel  to  the  respective  walls,  and 
from  the  points  of  intersection  of  these  lines, 
with  the  hip  lines  at  the  wide  end,  draw  the 
line  B  c,  which,  if  the  construction  is  correct, 
will  be  parallel  to  the  wall  at  that  end.  The 
triangle  so  formed  is  the  outline  of  the  flat 
to  be  covered  with  lead  or  zinc.  Next,  to 
obtain  the  shape  of  the  trusses,  determine 
their  position  and  number,  which  would 
depend  on  the  size  of  the  roof  and 
the  nature  of  the  covering.  In  the 
illustration,  four  are  shown.  Draw  the 
centre  line  a  e,  which  would  represent  the 
ridge  if  the  roof  was  carried  up  to  a  single 
ridge,  and  draw  the  seats  of  the  trusses 
s,  s,  s,  s,  at  right  angles  to  this  central  line. 
'     From  the  points  in  the  plan  where  the  seats 


of  the  trusses  cross  the  outlines  of  the  flat, 
draw  perpendiculars  to  the  seat  lines,  as 
shown  ;  make  these  equal  in  length  to  the 
height  of  the  roof,  as  given,  and  join  these 
points  by  straight  lines  to  each  other,  and 
the  intersection  of  the  seat  line  with  the 
wall.  The  outlines  so  obtained  will  be  the 
shape  of  the  respective  trusses  ;  or  rather, 


CD 

,  .III  

Ml  1 

1 

■t^I  I- 

^fal  1 

1 

^11  1 

162 


CARPENTEY  AND  JOINERY 


the  outline  of  common  rafters  and  bearers, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  615  ;  the  truss  is  drawn  to 
the  same  shape,  but  within  the  outlines,  as 
shown.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  truss  at 
the  narrow  end  is  a  king-post  truss,  the 
remainder  being  queen-post  trusses.  The 
common  rafters,  a  few  only  of  which  are 
shown,  should  be  drawn  at  right  angles  to 
the  walls ;  if  laid  otherwise,  their  edges 
will  not  lie  in  one  plane,  and  the  boards  or 
battens  will  not  sit  solidly  on  them.  The 
jack  rafters  are  cut  against  the  hips  in  the 
usual  manner.  The  thick  Hues  in  Fig.  613 
represent  the  trusses,  the  thin  Hues  the 


bearers  framed  into  it,  and  a  central  bearer 
at  B,  to  carry  the  other  ends  of  the  cross 


;:';i;nii 

w 

'ii 

is 

r: 

11  1!  i 

Fig.  621.— Timbering  for  Villa  Roof. 


rafters.  Fig.  615  represents  an  enlarged  bearers ;  this  is  sometimes  raised  to  give 
detail  at  the  head  of  one  of  the  trusses,  a  fall  to  either  side  of  the  lead  flat.  Figs, 
showing  one  of  the  ridge  boards  r,  with  cross     616  and  617  show  a  method  of  carrying  the 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


163 


wall  plate  at  the  wide  end  of  the  building 
when  the  roof  is  pitched  from  an  existing 
wall.  Three  courses  of  bricks  are  corbelled 
out  to  take  the  wall  plate,  and  about  every 


Fig.  622. — Section  through  Gutter  behind 
Parapet. 

8  ft.  a  short  pier  is  built  out  resting  upon  a 
stone  corbel.  This  is  done  in  order  to  obtain 
the  necessary  weight  to  prevent  the  upper 
courses  overturning. 

Arrang^ement  of  Roof  Timbers  to  Suit 
Given  Plan. 

First  Example. — The  arrangement  of  the 
timbers  for  a  roof  of  the  plan  shown  in 


Fig.  623. — Arrangement  of  Bearers  behind  Parapet 
Wall. 


Fig.  618  will  be  as  shown  in  that  illustra- 
tion. The  valley  rafter  b  and  the  hip 
rafter  c  would  fit  together  against  the 
ridge  a,  and  the  hip  rafter  c  need  not  be 


continued.  A  stouter  rafter  as  shown  at 
D,  to  meet  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  ridge 
where  the  valley  rafter  and  the  hip  rafter 
B  and  c  meet,  would  be  advantageous. 

Second  Example. — In  Fig.  619  A  is  gable 
end,  B  lean-to,  c  valley  rafter.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  various  members  of  the  roof 
is  shown.  The  sizes  are  as  follows  :  Com- 
mon rafters,  4  in.  or  4|  in.  by  2  in.  ;  ridge, 
11  in.  by  IJ  in.  ;  purlins,  9  in.  by  4  in.  ; 
valley  rafter,  11  in.  by  IJ  in.  ;  wall  plates, 
4 J  in.  by  3  in.  At  G  is  shown  a  valley  rafter  ; 
at  F  is  an  alternate  method,  in  which  the 
common  rafters  continue  to  the  wall  plate, 
and  a  valley  board  is  nailed  to  them,  to 
which  the  feet  of  the  short  rafters  of  the 
covering  to  the  bay  are  nailed  as  indicated. 

Third  Example. — For  the  villa  roof  shown 
by  Fig.  620  the  arrangement  of  timbers  will 
be  as  in  Fig.  621.  The  outside  dimensions 
of  the  whole  roof  are,  roughly,  42  ft.  by 
45  ft.  Suitable  sizes  for  the  roof  timbers 
are  as  follows  :  Purlins,  7  in.  by  4  in. ; 
valley  rafters,  11  in.  by  2  in. ;  common  and 
jack  rafters,  3 J  in.  by  2 J  in. ;  ridges,  7  in.  by 
IJ  in.  The  thickness  of  the  external  walls 
should  be  brick  and  a  half  (13J  in.).  The 
internal  walls,  which  are  connected  with  the 


Fig.  624.— Cross  Section  through  Trough  Gutter 
supported  by  Iron  Column. 


chimney  breasts,  must  be  at  least  9  in.  ; 
the  other  internal  walls  should  be  9  in.  for 
good  substantial  work,  but  for  ordinary 
purposes  the  walls  are  more  frequently  only 


1(54 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


half  a  brick  thick  (4J  in.).  Of  course,  the 
best  method  constructionally  is  to  build  up 
the  internal  walls  to  carry  the  purlins,  but 
this  is  seldom  done,  as  the  purlins  can  be 
supported  by  struts  resting  on  plates  bedded 
on  the  walls.  The  feet  of  the  rafters  along 
A  A  can  be  carried  by  bird's-mouthing  them 
on  to  two  9-in.  by  3-in.  deals  bolted  to- 
gether, then  the  V  gutter  is  formed  between 
the  rafters  in  the  usual  manner  with  two  drips 
and  falls  as  indicated  on  the  plan  (Fig.  620). 

Gutters  behind  Parapet,  behind 
Chimney,  and  to  "M"  Roof. 

Fig.  622  shows  a  section  through  a  gutter 
behind  a  parapet :  a  is  the  tilting  fillet, 
B  the  bearer ;  drips  and  fall  are 
shown.  The  conventional  view  (Fig.  623) 
clearly  shows  a  method  of  constructing 
and  fixing  the  bearers ;  those  at  a  are 
arranged  to  form  a  drip.  Gutter  board- 
ing is  shown  at  B.  Fig.  624  is  a  cross 
section  through  a  trough  gutter  in  an 
"  M  "  roof  showing  falls,  drips  and  cesspool, 
also  outlet  in  a  cast-iron  column ;  the 
column   assists   in    supporting   the  roof. 


Fig.  626.— Plan  of  Trimming  and  Bearers  for 
Gutter  to  Chimney. 


Fig.  627. — Vertical  Section  of  Trimming  and 
Gutter  behind  Chimney. 


The  conventional  sectional  view  (Fig.  625) 
makes  clear  the  general  construction.  The 
beams  a  act  as  the  sides  of  the  gutters,  and 
a  as  pole-plates  for  the  feet  of  the  rafters  ; 
B  is  the  gutter  board,  c  bearer,  d  cesspool, 
and  E  head  of  column.  Figs.  626  to  628 
show  the  trimming  and  construction  of  a 
gutter  behind  a  chimney.  The  gutter  in 
Fig.  628  is  formed  to  discharge  the  rain- 
water on  both  sides. 


Fig. 


625. — Conventional  Sectional  View  of  Trough 
Gutter  supported  by  Iron  Column. 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


165 


Ridges  and  Purlins  Trimmed  to 

Chimneys. 

^Usually  the  ridge  simply  butts  up  against 
the  chimney,  being  held  in  position  only  by 


rafter  next  to  the  wall  is  generally  fixed 
to  a  trimming  piece  a  (Fig.  629),  which 
rests  a  Uttle  way  in  the  wall,  and  is  nailed 
to  the  rafter  at  the  other  end  ;  sometimes 
these  two  latter  timbers  are  stub  mortised 


Fig.  628.— Conventional  View  of  Trimming  and  Gutter. 


Fig.  629. — Trimming  for  Rafter  against  Chimney. 


Fig.  630. — Supporting  Purlin  against  Chimney 
by  Corbelling. 


the  rafters.    If  desired,  the  ridge  can  be 
supported  on  an  iron  corbel  built  into  the    and  tenoned  together.    Of  course,  a  purlin 


chimney,  but  this  is  seldom  considered 
necessary.    When  trusses  are  provided  the 


must  not  be  allowed  to  enter  a  chimney 
breast,  but  onl^  butt  against  it,  therefore 


ridge  is  further  supported  by  them.    The    a  purHn  must^be  supported  by  brick  or 


166 


CAKPENTEY  A.ND  JOINERY. 


stone  corbelling  built  in  the  cbimney  as 
illustrated  at  Fig.  630.  In  the  case  when 
the  position  for  the  purlin  has  not  been 
anticipated,  and  thus  no  corbelHng  has  been 


with  two  purlins,  and  the  latter  being  a 
view  of  the  hip  and  purlins  taken  parallel 
to  the  purHn  a  (Fig.  631).  Fig.  633  is  a 
view  of  the  hip  and  purlin  b.  These  views 
clearly  show  a  general  method  of  abutting 
the  purlins  against  the  hips. 

Fixing  Valley  and  Jack  Rafters. 

Fig.  634  shows  the  valley  rafter  notched 
over  the  wall  plate,  and  cut  between  the 
ridges.  The  jack  rafters  are  also  shown 
fixed  to  the  valley  rafter  and  ridges. 

Bevels  and  Leng-ths  for  Hips  and 
Rafters. 

The  following  is  a  simple  method  of  obtain- 
lengths  of  timber  and  bevels  of  hips 


Fixing  Valley  and  Jack 
Rafter. 


Fig.  631.— Plan  of  Joints  of  Purlins 

and  Hip.  ^ 

Fig.   632. — Elevation;    View  taken 
parallel  to  Purlin  A  (Fig,  631). 


633. — Elevation  ;  View- 
parallel  to  Hip. 


taken 


provided,  a  good  plan  is  to  rake  out  a  joint 
and  fix  an  iron  corbel  with  cement. 

Joints  between  Purlins  and  Hips. 

Tlie  proper  way  to  support  the  purlins  at 
the  ] lipped  end  of  an  ordinary  roof  is  shown 
by  Figs.  631  and  632,  the  former  being  a 
plan  of  the  hip  and  the  meeting  of  the  hip 


and  rafters.  First  set  up  the  elevation  of 
pitch  as  shown  in  Fig.  635,  and  in  the  plan 
in  Fig.  636.  To  obtain  the  length  of  the  hip 
set  up  c  E  at  right  angles  to  B  c,  and,  making 
c  E  equal  to  the  height  c' d,  join  b  e,  which 
gives  the  length  required.  The  bevels  for 
application  to  the  side  of  the  hip  are  shown 
at  1  and  2.    The  bevel  for  the  edge  is  shown 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


167 


at  3.  This  bevel  is  obtained  as  follows  : 
Produce  the  ridge  line  as  shown  by  c  f, 
making  it  any  length,  project  f  g  H  at 
right  angles  to  b  c  and  h  k  at  right  angles 
to  B  E,  make  H  k  equal  to  f  g,  join  e  k, 
which  gives  the  bevel  shown  at  3.  Take 
B  any  point  l  in  the  plan  of  the  hip  and  draw 
L  N  at  right  angles  to  b  e,  then  from  l  draw 
L  M  at  right  angles  to  B  c  ;  then  with  l  as 
centre  "^and  n  as  radius  draw  the  arc  n  o  ; 
join  M  o,  then  the  bevel  shown  at  4  is  for 
the  backing  of  the  hip.  The  bevel  for  the 
top  end  of  the  jack  rafters  is  shown  at  5  ; 


Fig.  636. 

Figs.  635  and  636.— Bevels  and 
Lengths  for  Hips  and  Rafters, 
also  showing  Backing  for  Hips. 


Fig.  638 


Fig.  638.— Line  of  Pitch  of  Roof  at  A  B  C. 
Fig.  639.— Plan  of  Roof  at  D  E  F  G. 


Fig.  637. — Backing  of  Hip  Rafter. 

to  get  this,  use  b  as  centre  and  e  as  radius, 
and  cut  the  ridge  Hne  in  p  ;  join  A  p,  and 
draw  R  s  at  right  angles  to  a  b.  If  r  x 
is  the  plan  of  a  jack  rafter,  r  s  will  be  its 
true  length.  Another  method  of  obtaining 
the  length  of  these  rafters  is  also  shown. 
Let  T  u  and  v  w  be  the  plans  of  two  rafters, 
project  u  u'  and  w  as  shown,  then  a'  u' 
gives  the  length  of  the  rafter  shown  in  plan 
T  u,  and  A.'  w'  that  of  v  w.  The  bevels  to 
apply  to  the  sides  of  rafters  are  shown  at 
6  and  7. 

Backing  of  Hip  Rafter. — The  bevel  shown 
at  4  (Fig.  636)  is  for  the  backing  of  the  hip — 


168 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


that  is,  planing  the  upper  edge  into  two 
surfaces,  so  that  each  is  in  the  same  plane 
as  the  adjacent  top  edges  of  the  rafters  ;  this 
will  be  clearly  understood  by  referring  to 
Fig.  637.    The  object  of  the  backing  is  to 


is  the  formation  of  the  top  edge  into  two 
planes,  as  shown  and  described  above.  The 
following  method  can  be  adopted  for  tind- 
ing  backing  to  hips.  Set  out  to  scale  the 
linck  of  the  pitch  of  the  roof  as  shown  at 


V  p 


'Cyig.  641.— Geometrical  Method  of  obtaining 
Bevels  for  Jack  Rafters. 

prepare  a  direct  bearing  for  the  boarding  or 
slating  battens.  The  term  backing  of  hip 
is  sometimes  used  to  denote  the  distance 
from  the  back  of  the  hip  to  the  edge  of  the 
plate,  but  the  proper  meaning  of  the  term 


Fig.  642. — Diagram  showing  pictorially  how  to 
obtain  Bevels  for  Jack  Rafters. 

ABC  (Fig.  638),  and  a  portion  of  the  plan 
D  E  F  G  (Fig.  639) ;  e  g  will  be  the  plan  of 
the  hip.  At  right  angles  to  e  g  set  up  g  h, 
making  it  the  same  length  as  the  height 
B  c,  then  E  H  is  the  pitch  of  the  hip.  In  e  g 
take  any  point,  as  k,  and  at  right  angles  to 
this  line  draw  d  f  through  k.  With  k  as 
centre  draw  the  arc  l  m  tangent  to  e  h  as 
shown,  join  m  f,  which  is  the  angle  of  the 
backing.  Set  the  bevel  to  the  drawing  as 
shown.  Fig.  640  is  a  sketch  showing  the 
bevel  being  applied  to  the  hip.  A  drawing 
as  shown  at  Figs.  638  and  639  can  be  sketched 
on  a  board  to  about  1-in.  scale  on  a  building, 
and  it  will  be  found  to  take  up  much  less 
time  than  the  rule-of-thumb  method  of  guess 
and  trial.  If  work  is  to  be  done  properly, 
and  without  mistakes,  time  must  be  allowed 
to  set  it  out.    There  is  no  other  proper  way. 

Bevels  for  Jack  Rafters. 

The  making  of  a  cardboard  model,  as 
described  in  this  paragraph,  will  greatly 
help  to  make  clear  the  method  of  determin- 
ing the  bevels  for  jack  rafters.    On  a  piece 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


169 


of  card,  say  about  6  in.  square  (Fig.  641), 
draw  a  line  x  Y  ;  then  set  up  a  c  equal  to 
the  pitch  of  the  roof  at  right  angles  to  x  y. 
Draw  A  B,  which  corresponds  to  the  wall 
plate.    Now  draw  b  c  as  the  Hne  plate  of 


L 

\ 

Fig.  643.— Taking  off  Bevels  for  Rafters. 

the  hip  ;  then  from  c  raise  a  projection  to 
c\.  There  is  now  a  line  plan  of  a  portion 
of  the  roof,  and  also  a  line  elevation.  In 
the  elevation  at  1  and  2  are  the  bevels  for 
the  feet  and  head  of  the  rafters,  and  at  3  is 
shown  the  plan  of  the  bevel  required  for  the 
top  edges  of  the  rafters.  Now,  to  get  the 
true  shape  of  this  bevel,  rotate  the  plane 
ABC  into  the  horizontal  plane.  To  do  this, 
with  centre  a  describe  the  arc  d,  and  join 
B  D  ;  then  a  b  d  is  the  true  shape  of  a  b  c, 
and  the  bevel  shown  at  4  is  the  one  re- 


Fig.  644.— Applying  Bevel  to  Edge  of  Rafter. 

quired.  To  make  the  construction  quite 
clear,  cut  out  a  piece  of  card  the  shape  of 
A  B  D  ;  fold  the  horizontal  plane  and  the 
vertical  plane  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
and  place  the  pieces  of  card  in  position,  as 


shown  at  Fig.  642.  It  will  then  be  seen 
that  the  bevel  at  4  is  the  one  required,  and 
that  it  stands  over  its  plan  as  shown  at  3 
in  Fig.  642. 

Taking:  off  Bevels  for  Rafters. 

Bevels  for  rafters  are  taken  off  the  drawing 
and  put  on  the  stuff  to  be  cut  in  the  way 


Fig.  645. — Applying  Bevel  to  Side  of  Rafter. 

described  below.  Set  out  for  the  bevels 
as  shown  at  Fig.  643,  the  bevel  at  a  being 
for  the  vertical  cut,  and  that  at  b  for  the 
bevel  to  be  applied  at  the  edge  of  the  rafter. 
The  bevels  can  be  set  from  the  drawing 
as  shown  at  Fig.  643.  Fig.  644  shows  the 
bevel  b  (Fig.  643)  applied  to  the  top  edge 
of  the  rafter,  and  Fig.  645  shows  bevel  a 
(Fig.  643)  applied  to  the  side  of  it.  This 


Fig.  646. — Application  of  Bevels  to  Side  and 
Edge  of  Rafter. 


will  perhaps  be  more  clearly  understood 
from  the  isometric  view  given  at  Fig.  646, 
which  shows  the  application  of  the  bevels. 
The  form  of  the  cut  c  (Fig.  643)  is  the  bevel 
for  feet  of  rafters. 


170 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Bevels  for  Hips,  etc.,  to  Roofs  over 
Obtuse  or  Acute  Angles. 

The  foregoing  cases  of  obtaining  bevels 
for  hips  and  rafters  have  been  for  roofs 
with  the  wall  plates  at  right  angles  and  the 
plan  of  the  hip  bisecting  the  angle  between 
them.  Many  students  are  able  to  deal 
readily  with  such  examples  ;  but  when  a  case 
is  presented  as  shown  by  Fig.  647,  where  the 
plan  of  the  plates  at  a  makes  an  obtuse 


bevel  shown  at  m  is  for  application  to  the 
edges  of  the  jack  rafters.  To  obtain  the 
development  of  the  hip  end  age,  produce 
A  B  and  draw  x  y  at  right  angles  ;  project 
from  G,  and  make  x  g'  equal  to  e  f.  Join 
g'  to  H,  so  obtaining  the  inclination  of  the 
hipped  end  of  the  roof.  With  h  as  centre 
and  g'  as  radius,  obtain  the  point  k'.  From 
G  project  down  at  right  angles  to  the 
line  A  B ;  this  gives  the  point  K.  Then 
the  bevels  shown  at  k  will  be  for  the  jack 


Fig.  647.— Method  of  obtaining  Bevels  for  Feet  and  Side  Cuts,  and  also  the  Backing  of  Hips. 


angle,  and  at  b  an  acute  angle,  and  the  plan 
of  the  hips  does  not  bisect  the  angles,  they 
often  cannot  get  a  correct  result,  although 
the  geometrical  principles  are  similar,  as 
will  be  shown.  At  c  d  e  set  up  the  pitch 
of  the  roof  taken  at  right  angles  to  the 
plates  ;  produce  f  c  and  f  d  indefinitely ;  from 
c  with  c  E  as  radius  obtain  point  N ;  from 
D,  with  D  E  as  radius,  obtain  point  o ; 
draw  N  L  parallel  to  A  c,  obtaining  the  point 
L.  Join  A  L  ;  then  clearly  a  l  n  c  is  the 
development  of  the  side  of  the  roof  a  c  f  G, 
and  the  bevel  at  l  is  for  the  top  cuts  of  the 
jack  rafters.  The  development  of  the  side 
of  the  roof  b  g  f  d  has  been  obtained  in 
exactly  similar  manner  at  b  d  o  m,  and  the 


rafters  on  each  side.  The  bevels  for  the 
side  top  cuts  are  shown  at  e  and  g',  and  for 
the  feet  at  c,  d,  and  h.  To  obtain  the  bevels 
for  the  backing  of  the  hip  at  a  g,  at  any 
point  in  its  plan  draw  a  6  at  right  angles  to 
A  G.  Set  up  G  c  at  right  angles  to  A  G, 
making  it  equal  to  e  f.  Join  a  c.  On  the  line 
AC  set  up  e  at  right  angles  to  a g,  cutting 
AG  in  d.  With  d  as  centre,  draw  an  arc 
tangent  to  a  c,  with  radius  d  e,  and  so 
obtain  point  /.  Join  a  f  h  f  ;  then  the 
bevels  shown  at  /  will  be  for  the  backing  of 
the  hip,  that  at  c  will  be  for  the  vertical  cut  of 
the  hip,  whereas  that  at  a  will  be  for  the 
foot.  If  this  working  has  been  carefully 
followed  no  difiiculty  will  be  found  in  setting 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


171 


out  the  bevels  for  the  acute  angle  at  h.  The 
plan  A  c  D  B  has  been  reproduced  in  Fig. 
648  with  the  complete  setting  out  of  the 
timbers,  and  also  the  development  of  the 
sides  of  the  roof  which  give  the  true  length 
of  each  timber  and  the  bevel  for  the  top 
cut  against  the  hip.  A  cardboard  model 
set  out  ion  this  principle,  and  folded  up, 
would  -prove  the  working.  The  bevels 
shown  at  1,  2,  3,  and  4  are  similar  to  the 
corresponding  ones  at  Fig.  647. 


then  from  d,  d  c  s,t  right  angles  to  a  c,  from 
b  and  c  set  up  the  pitches  of  the  roof  sur- 
faces, as  shown  by  Hues  h  e  and  c  f.  Set  out 
the  sections  of  the  purHns  from  h  and  c  and 
at  right  angles  to  the  Hues  h  e  and  c  j.  Pro- 
ject down  from  the  section  at  g'  and  h'  to 
g,  and  so  obtain  the  plan  of  the  top  edge  and 
inner  surface  of  the  purlin  ;  from  f'  n'  to  1 
and  2  the  plan  of  the  edge  and  side  of  the 
adjacent  purhn  is  obtained.  To  make  the 
working  clearer,  assume  that  the  end  of  the 


Fig.  648. — Plan  of  Timbering  of  Hipped  End  Roof,  with  Wall  Plates  making  Obtuse  and  Acute 
Angles  ;  also  Development  of  each  Side  of  Roof. 


Bevels  for  Purlins. 

The  following  will  be  found  a  good  general 
method  for  obtaining  the  bevels  for  purlins. 
Assume  that  the  plans  of  the  wall  plates 
are  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  that 
the  plan  of  the  hip  bisects  the  angle  be- 
tween the  plates.  To  an  enlarged  scale 
set  out  a  portion  of  the  plan  as  at  a  b  c 
(Fig.  649).  Set  out  the  plan  of  the  hip,  its 
centre  hne  being  b  d  as  shown.  Fix  on  any 
point  a  in  the  centre  Hne  of  the  hip,  and 
draw  ah,  ac  parallel  to  the  plan  of  the  line 
of  wall  plates  a  b,  b  c.  At  any  convenient 
point  in  a  6  draw  6    at  right  angles  to  ah  ; 


purlin  which  fits  against  the  hip  has  been 
removed  to  the  position  nop  (which,  of 
course,  is  parallel  to  1  and  2).  Continue 
d  h,  taking  this  line  as  an  x  Y  ;  then,  with 
h  as  centre  and  and  n'  as  radii,  obtain 
points  g'  /,  thus  constructing  the  edge  and 
side  of  the  purlin  into  the  horizontal  plane. 
Then  project  down  from  g'  and  /  parallel  to 
B  c,  and  from  p  and  n  parallel  to  x  y,  thus 
obtaining  points  g  and  r.  Then  the  true 
shape  of  the  end  of  the  side  of  the  purlin  is 
shown  by  the  bevel  e,  and  that  for  the  edge 
at  F.  The  application  of  these  bevels  to  the 
purlin  is  shown  by  Fig.  650.    The  case  just 


172 


CARPENTHY  AND  JOINERY. 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


173 


dealt  with  is  soon  mastered  by  the  average 
student,  but  a  difficulty  is  usually  met  with 
in  obtaining  bevels  for  purlins  where  the 
plates  are  at  obtuse  or  acute  angles,  and  the 
plans  of  the  hips  do  not  bisect  the  angle 
between  them.  Therefore  take  the  case 
of  the  purlins  fitting  against  the  hip  at  e 
(Fig.  648).  By  carefully  working  out  this 
case,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  geometrical 
principles  are  those  involved  in  the  preced- 
ing example.    Set  out  a  b,  b  c,  for  the  lines 


c" 


Fig.  652.— Bevel  for 
Edge  of  Hip,  fitting 
full  against  the  Side 


of  wall  plates  (Fig.  651),  and  b  d  the  centre 
fine  of  the  plan  of  the  hip  ;  fixing  upon  any 
point  a  in  it,  draw  ah,aG,  parallel  to  B  c,  a  b 
respectively.  At  any  convenient  point  b  draw 
b  d  8it  right  angles  to  b  c,  and  from  d  draw 
d  c  at  right  angles  to  a  c.  From  b  set  up  the 
pitch  of  the  roof  and  draw  d  e  at  right  angles 
to  b  d,  and  d  f  at  right  angles  to  d  c.  Make 
d  f  equal  to  d  e  ;  joining  c  f  should  give  the 


pitch  of  that  side  of  the  roof  ;  continue  the 
lines  e  b  and  /  c,  and  set  out  the  sections  and 
plans  of  the  purhns  as  shown.  Then  with 
b  as  centre  and  and  n'  as  radii  obtain 
points  and  /,  projecting  down  from  these 
and  p  and  n  respectively  parallel  to  x  y, 
points  q  and  r  are  obtained,  and  thus  the 
bevels  e  and  f.  Although  the  bevels  g  and 
H  are  not  the  same  angles  as  e  and  f,  they 
are  obtained  in  exactly  similar  manner,  as 
will  be  seen.  It  should  be  noted  that  as  far 
as  practicable  the  same  lettering  has  been 
adopted  as  in  the  case  of  Fig.  649. 

Bevels  for  Hips. 

At  Fig.  652  is  shown  a  method  of  obtain- 
ing the  bevels  for  the  head  of  a  hip  cutting 
full  against  the  side  of  a  ridge  (see  Fig.  654). 
Let  A  represent  the  plan  of  the  end  of  the 


^  w 


Fig.  653. — Conventional  View  of 
Geometrical  Working  of  Fig.  652. 

ridge  and  ab  c  d  the  plan  of  the  hip  (not 
backed),  cut  to  fit  against  the  ridge.  At  right 
angles  to  the  plan  of  the  ridge  draw  x  y 
from  b  ;  project  up  to  it,  obtaining  point  e  ; 
then  set  up  the  angle  of  the  roof  ;  then  pro- 
ject up  from  c,  so  obtaining  the  point  /.  By 
continuing  a  d  each  way,  use  it  as  an  a;  ?/ ; 
project  up  from  c,  and  make  I  c'  equal  to  the 
height  2/.    Join  a'  c'  ;    consider  this  the 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


175 


vertical  trace  ;  project  from  d  and  obtain 
d'  ;  from  c'  at  right  angles  to  the  vertical 
trace  obtain  c",  which  is  equal  to  g\  From 
a,  set  out  at  right  angles  to  the  vertical 
trace,  making  a'  h'  equal  to  ah  ;  join  to 
c"  and  c"  to  d\  Then  the  bevel  k  is  for  the 
edge  of  the  hip,  that  at  L,  of  course,  being 
for  the  side.  If  cuts  be  made  along  the 
lines  a'  b\  h'  c" ,  c"  d\  and  folds  made  along 
the  line  a'  d\  and  also  along  the  line  x  y,  the 


Fig.  660. — Plan  of  Octagonal 
Pyramidal  Roof. 


ing.  Fig.  654  is  a  conventional  view  of  the 
hips  in  their  positions  against  the  ridge,  and 
indicates  the  apphcation  of  the  bevels  to 
the  top  edge  and  side  of  hip,  where  the 
hips   are  mitred  together,  and  also  butt 


Fig.  659. — Elevation  of  Octagona 
Pyramidal  Roof  when  Boarded. 


true  shape  of  the  edge  can  be  made  to  stand 
over  its  plan,  as  indicated  by  the  conven- 
tional sketch  (Fig.  653),  which  can  be  easily 
followed,  as  the  same  lettering  is  adopted  as 
in  Fig.  652.  A  model  made  as  suggested 
in  thick  paper  or  card  would  prove  the  work- 


against  the  end  of  the  ridge,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  655,  The  geometrical  principles  of  this 
are  exactly  the  same  as  explained  in  the 
previous  case,  and  the  working  is  shown  at 
Fig.  656,  where  m  and  l  are  the  required 
bevels  for  the  edge,  and  n  for  the  side.  Fig. 


ITG 


CARPENTEY  AND  JOINERY. 


657  is  a  conventional  view  of  a  model  made 
to  prove  the  working  of  Fig,  656.  If  the 
method  shown  by  Fig.  652  has  been  mas- 
tered, no  difficulty  will  be  found  in  this 
example.  Fig.  658  shows  the  hips  mitred 
and  butted  against  end  of  ridge. 

Octagonal  Pyramidal  Roof  at  the 
Ang^le  of  a  Building-. 

The  method  of  obtaining  the  intersections, 
and  the  method  of  construction  of  an 
octagonal  pyramidal  roof  intersecting  at  the 
angle  of  a  hipped  roof,  will  now  be  described. 
Figs.  659  and  660  show,  respectively,  the 


is  the  line  of  boarding.  The  other  half, 
A  3  4  5  6  B,  it  will  be  noticed,  is  a  little  less, 
this  being  the  line  of  rafters.  To  avoid 
confusing  the  diagrams  with  a  number  of 
lines,  the  line  of  the  wall  has  been  omitted  ; 
it  would,  of  course,  form  a  smaller  parallel 
octagon  to  those  shown.  Next  set  out  line 
A  B,  which  is  the  line  of  feet  of  rafters,  and 


Fig.  661. — Plan  of  Hips,  Rafters, 
etc.,  of  Octagonal  Pyramidal 
Roof,  and  also  Section  of  Foot 
of  Main  Roof. 


elevation  and  plan,  and  also  the  intersections 
where  the  pyramidal  roof  meets  the  hipped 
roof,  as  A,  B,  c,  D,  e,  f,  g.  Before  the  inter- 
sections shown  by  Figs.  659  and  660,  and 
the  timbers  shown  by  Figs.  661  to  663,  can 
be  properly  set  out,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
obtain  the  intersections  of  the  boarded  sur- 
faces geometrically.  The  method  of  doing 
this  is  shown  by  Fig.  664,  and  is  as  follows  : 
Set  out  the  half  octagon  a  2  1  8  7  b,  which 


E  F,  which  is  the  Une  of  face  of  the  fascia 
board  of  the  main  roof,  also  the  line  of 
the  main  hip,  as  shown  at  G  h.  At  right 
angles  to  1  8,  draw  o  p,  and  at  right  angles  to 
this  Une  set  up  o  R,  making  it  equal  to  the 
height.  Join  p  r,  which  is  the  true  inchna- 
tion  of  the  sides  of  the  pyramidal  roof.  At 
any  point  along  E  F  draw  ic  ?/  at  right  angles 
to  it,  and  set  up  the  pitch  of  the  main  roof 
as  showm  by  x  s.    Now  take  any  point  t  on 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


177 


Fig.  662.— Vertical  Section  of  Octagonal  Pyramidal 
Roof  showing  Principal  Timbers. 


Fig.  663.— Elevation  of  Octagonal  Pyramidal  Roof 
ready  for  Boarding. 


this  pitch  Hne,  and  project  down  at  right 
angles  to  x  y,  meeting  it  in  a,  as  shown. 
From  o  mark  ofE  o  v  equal  to  the  height 
T  u.  From  v  project  across  to  w,  parallel  to 
o  p.  From  w  project 
down  at  right  angles 
to  o  p,  meeting  it  in 
d.  Then  from  d  draw 
d  a  parallel  to  1  8, 
which  will  meet  t  u 
in  a.  J oin  e  a,  which 
gives  the  intersection 
of  the  surface  o  1  8, 
and  the  main  roof. 
For  the  next  inter- 
section, from  where  w  a  cuts  o  8  in  e, 
draw  a  line  parallel  to  7  8.  Now  pro- 
duce T  u,  which  meets  the  last  line  in  /. 
Then  from  h  draw  through  /  to  meet  o  7  in 
g.  This  gives  the  intersection  of  the  main 
roof  with  the  triangular  portion  o  7  8.  The 
side  B  7  should  be  continued  so  as  to  meet 
E  F  in  ^.  Join  h  g,  an(J  produce  to  G.  Then 
g  G  is  half  of  the  intersection  of  the  surface 
7  o  6.  Workers  having  a  knowledge  of 
geometry  will  see  that  the  principle  of  work- 
ing has  been  based  on  a  problem  in  hori- 
zontal projection,  the  specific  problem 
being  :  Given  the  horizontal  traces  and  the 
inclinations  of  planes,  find  their  intersec- 
tions. 

Developments  of  Surfaces. — If  it  is  desired 
to  obtain  the 
developments  of 
the  several  sur- 
faces, they  can 
be  obtained  in 
the  following 
manner  : — Draw 
p  o  at  right  angles 
to  1  8,  and  o  R 
at  right  angles  to 
o  p.  Measure  on 
0  R  the  height. 
Join  p  R,  which  gives  the  inclination  and 
true  length  of  the  centre  line  of  the 
full  surfaces.  Bisect  line  2  3,  and  at 
right  angles  to  it  draw  a  k,  making  a  k 
the  same  length  as  p  r.  Join  2  k  and 
3  K,  which  gives  the  true  shape  of  each  of 
the  full  surfaces.  This  development  can 
be  used  to  show  the  true  shape  of  the  sur- 
faces which  intersect  with  the  roof;  From 


TIMBER  ROOFS. 


179 


h  project  up  to  meet  the  line  p  r  in  h\  make 
A  z  equal  to  p  V,  then  through  z  draw  line 
<7'  z  M  parallel  to  a  3  ;  next  make  3  l  equal  to 
E  8.  Then  2  l  m  k  is  the  true  shape  of  the 
side  1  E  6  o.  From  g  draw  a  parallel  to  7  8, 
meeting  8  o  in  ^,  then  from  the  point  h  draw 
a  Hne  parallel  to  1  8,  and  continue  it  to 
meet  PR  in  ^.  Now  measure  oli  on 
the  line  a  k  a  distance  a  x  equal  to  p  I. 

,  -  Through  x  draw  a  parallel  to  2  3,  meeting  3  k 
in  point  n.    Join  n  q,  then  n    k  is  the  true 

I     shape  of  the  surface  gh  o.    From  g  draw 

iGmn  s  parallel  to  b  7  8  p.    From  s  project 
up  to  meet  p  r  in  r.    Make  a  u  equal  to  r  p. 
Join  N  u  and  u  v  ;  then  N  uv  k  is  the  true 
development  of  the  surface  j  g  g  o. 
Bevels  of  Parts,  and  Backing  of  Hips. — 
The  method  of  obtaining  the  bevels  of  the 
I    several  parts  may  now  be  described,  the 
1    means  of  obtaining  the  backing  of  the  hips 
being  first  shown.    At  right  angles  to  o  4 
set  up  o  9,  and  make  it  equal  to  the  height ; 
I  '  join  4  9,  which  gives  the  true  rake  of  the 
I    hips.    At  11  is  shown  the  bevel  for  the 
vertical  cut  of  the  top,  and  at  12  that  for 
the  foot.    As  will  be  seen,  one  edge  of  this 
bevel  is  adjacent  to  the  pitch  line  ;  the 
other,  being  horizontal,  is  drawn  parallel  to 
0  4.    For  the  backing  of  the  hips,  join  3  5, 
I    and  from  where  this  hne  meets  o  4  in  point 
10,  draw  an  arc  tangent  to  the  pitch  line 
i    4  9.    From  where  the  arc  meets  4  10  in  point 
I    11,  join  to  5  and  3  as  shown  ;  then  d  is  the 
I    bevel  required.     The  bevel  for  where  the 
i    hips  meet  each  other  is  shown  at  13.  Refer- 
ence to  Fig.  662  will  show  where  this  bevel 
will  be  required,  and  also  that  the  upper 
part  of  the  mast  or  central  post  is  octagonal. 
This  allows  the  upper  cuts  of  the  hips  to  be 
made  square  through  their  thickness,  and 
therefore  no  bevel  is  required.    The  develop- 
ment   of    the    intersection     shown  at 
3  M  N  K      2  gives  us  the  bevels  for  the  feet 
of  the  hips  and  rafters  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  and 
G  (Fig.  661).    The  bevels  14,  15,  16,  and  17 
(Fig.  664)  are  for  the  feet  of  the  hips  a,  b,  e, 
and  F  respectively  (Fig.  661).    These  bevels 
'  are  for  application  after  the  hips  have  been 
backed.     The  bevels  to  apply  to  the  backs 
of  the  feet  of  the  jack  rafters  at  c  and  d 
(Fig.  661)  are  shown  at  18  (Fig.  664),  whilst 
the  bevel  for  the  foot  of  G  (Fig.  661)  is  shown 
at  19  (Fig.  664).    It  will  be  noticed  that 


the  valley  rafters  shown  by  1,  2,  3  (Fig.  661) 
have  their  upper  edges  in  the  same  plane  as 
the  main  roof  ;  therefore  it  will  be  necessary 
to  obtain  a  bevel  for  the  preparation  of  these 
edges.  The  geometrical  construction  for  this 
is  as  follows  : — From  any  point  in  the  plan 
of  the  valley,  as  h  (Fig.  661),  draw  the  hori- 
zontal line  H  K  and  draw  h  l  at  right  angles 
to  2  3  ;  then  at  any  point  in  h  l  draw  x  y  at 
right  angles  to  it,  and  cutting  line  h  k  in  k. 
From  where  H  k  cuts  the  pitch  of  the  roof 
as  shown  at  m,  draw  m  n  at  right  angles  to 
H  K.  Then  from  L  drop  a  perpendicular  to 
M  N  as  shown.  Next  project  l  p  at  right 
angles  to  x  y,  and  make  it  equal  in  length  to 
N  o.  Now  join  K  p  ;  then  with  l  as  centre, 
draw  an  arc  tangent  to  k  p,  meeting  x  y 
in  R.  Join  R  H,  which  will  give  the  bevel 
required  as  shown  at  25.  The  bevels  for 
application  to  the  sides  of  the  jack  rafters 
are  shown  at  20  and  21  (Fig.  664),  whilst  the 
bevel  at  13  is  for  application  to  the  tops  of  the 
jack  rafters.  The  methods  of  obtaining  the 
bevels  for  the  jack  rafters  for  the  main  roof 
are  shown  by  22,  23,  and  24  (Fig.  664) 
respectively. 

Further  Constructional  Details. — The  hip 
of  the  main  roof,  as  will  be  noticed,  requires 
supporting  at  the  lower  end.    This  is  done 
by  placing  a  beam  across  the  octagonal 
space,  as  shown  at  s  and      (Figs.  661  and 
662).    Then  the  end  of  the  hip  is  bird's- 
mouthed  on  to  this  beam,  an  isometric 
detail  of  which  is  shown  at  Fig.  665  ;  this 
figure  also  shows  how  the  mast  forks  over 
the  end  of  the  hip,  and  has  two  stub  tenons 
fitting  into  mortises  made  in  the  beam  so  as 
to   keep   the   whole  secure.    The  ceiling 
joists  in  the  octagonal  space  are  built  into 
the  walls  as  shown  in  plan  (Fig.  661)  and 
section  (Fig.  662).    Of  course,  as  is  usual, 
the  ceihng  joists  under  the  main  roof  run 
parallel  to  one  of  the  front  walls.  The 
ends  of  four  of  these  (u,  v,  w,  and  z)  cannot 
be  carried  to  any  wall,  therefore  a  trimmer 
is  provided  of  stouter  scantling  to  carry 
these  ends,  as  shown  in  the  plan  and  section 
(Figs.  661  and  662).    The  boarding  is  clearly 
shown  in  Figs.  659  and  660,  and  therefore 
does  not  require  further  description.  There 
are  other  little  points  which  are  fully  shown 
in  the  illustrations,  but  it  is  not  necessary 
to  enlarge  upon  them  here. 


FRAMEWORK   OF   DORMER  WINDOWS. 


Introduction. — A  dormer  window  is  a  window  framing  erected  vertically  on  the  rafters, 
formed  in  a  sloping  roof,  the  window  pierc-  Dormer  windows  are  much  in  use  in  modern 
ing  through  the  incHne  and  having  its     buildings,  to  give  adequate  hght  to  rooms 


182 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


formed  in  the  roof,  and  to  afford  a  good  view 
of  the  surrounding  district.  They  are  also 
used  to  add  to  the  architectural  effect  of 


Fig.  673. — Section  of  Dormer  through  Portion 
of  One  End  of  Roof. 


the  roof.  The  construction  differs  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  country,  as  will  be  gathered 
from  the  typical  illustrations  given  in  this 
section. 


Gabled  Dormer. 

Figs.  666  to  672  show  the  leading  details 
construction  of  a  dormer  window,  the 


Fig.  672.— Enlarged  Section  of  Dormer  through 
B  B  (Fig.  666). 


Fig.  674. — Part  Elevation  of  Framework,  etc., 
of  Dormer  in  Mansard  Roof. 


lower  part  of  which  is  in  the  front  wall  of 
the  house  ;  the  oak  sill  of  the  casement 
frame  rests  on  the  stone  sill,  connected  to 
it  by  a  water  bar,  as  shown.    The  upper 


FRAMEWORK  OF  DORMER  WINDOWS. 


183 


part  of  the  window  is  constructed  mainly 
of  wood,  the  exposed  woodwork  being 
moulded  as  shown.  The  roof  and  the  sides 
of  the  dormer  are  prepared  for  covering  with 
lead  or  zinc.  The  advantage  claimed  for 
this  kind  of  dormer,  as  compared  with  those 
situated  wholly  in  the  roof,  is  a  larger  window 


view  (Fig.  668)  clearly  shows  the  relation 
and  arrangement  of  the  several  timbers. 
The  trimming  piece  shown  at  c  is  tenoned 
through  the  two  main  rafters  and  keyed. 
The  two  rafters  at  D  and  e  are  stub-tenoned 
into  the  trimmer.  Fig.  669  shows  the  joints 
at  F  (Fig.  668).    At  a  in  Fig.  670  the  collar 


Fig.  675. — Oblique  Projection  of  Framework  of  Dormer  in  Mansard  Roof. 


opening  and  a  higher  ceiling  to  the  roof  next 
the  front  wall  (see  Fig.  667).  The  roof  has 
overhanging  eaves,  with  the  feet  of  the 
rafters  moulded  as  shown,  an  ogee  gutter 
being  fixed.  The  form  of  the  exposed 
woodwork  is  shown  in  the  elevation  given 
(Fig.  666).  Fig.  667  is  a  section  through 
A  A  (Fig.  666),  which  exhibits  the  construc- 
tion of  most  of  the  parts.    The  isometrical 


is  shown  dovetail-lapped  into  the  rafter. 
At  B  another  method  is  shown,  the  collar 
being  halved  and  lapped  on  to  the  rafter. 
Fig.  671  shows  the  oak  sill,  bottom  rail  of 
casement,  nosing  connection  to  stone  sill, 
etc.  At  Fig.  672  is  given  an  enlarged  detail 
through  B  B  (Fig.  666),  showing  the  joint 
between  the  frame  and  the  stile  ot  the  case- 
ments, also  of  the  boarding  nailed  to  the 


184 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


frame  and  covered  with  lead  or  zinc;  After 
this  boarding  has  been  fixed,  the  moulding 
G  is  attached  as  shown.  The  dimensions 
shown  of  some  of  the  principal  parts  should 


to  675.  In  constructing  the  framework,  the 
following  are  the  principal  points  requiring 
attention.  The  wall  is  18  in.  thick,  and  is 
finished  with  a  stone  cornice.    The  top 


Fig.  676. — General  View  of  Complete  Framing  of  Bay  Dormer  Window. 


be  regarded  as  suggestive  rather  than  abso- 
lute. 

Small  Dormer  Window^  in  Mansard 
Roof. 

The  bare  framework  of  a  small  dormer 
in  a  Mansard  roof  is  illustrated  by  Figs.  673 


surface  of  this  is  hollowed  out  of  the  sohd 
stone,  and  afterwards  lead  is  dressed  in  so 
as  to  form  the  gutter  (see  G,  Fig.  673,  which 
shows  the  brickwork,  stonework,  and  timber 
framing).  The  main  tie-beam  is  supported 
by  a  stone  corbel  as  shown.  This  beam 
also  acts  as  a  girder  to  support  the  floor  and 


186 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


ceiling  joists.  The  former  are  cogged  to 
the  tie-beam,  but  the  latter  need  only  be 
notched  on.  The  two  rafters  a  and  b  (Fig. 
674),  to  which  the  framing  of  the  dormer  is 
attached,  are  thicker  than  the  other  rafters. 
The  opening  between  these  two  rafters  is 
formed  by  the  trimming  pieces  d  and  e. 
The  lower  wall  plate  is  held  fast  to  each  tie- 
beam  by  iron  straps  as  shown  at  c  (Fig. 


681  sufficiently  show  the  construction,  and 
therefore  only  the  leading  points  need  be 
mentioned.  The  joists  rest  on  a  wall  plate 
in  the  usual  manner,  and  a  second  plate, 
supporting  the  rafters,  is  fixed  to  the  upper 
edges  of  the  joists,  the  ends  of  the  rafters 
also  being  attached  to  the  joists.  The 
gutter  is  of  wood,  supported  on  wooden 
bearers  built  into  the  wall  as  shown  at  Figs. 


Fig.  680.— Longitudinal 
Section  of  Bay  Dormer. 


673).  Suggestive  sizes  are  figured  on  the 
different  members,  but  of  course  these 
would  vary  according  to  circumstances. 

Bay  Dormer  Window. 

At  Fig.  676  are  shown  conventionally 
the  timbers  connected  with  the  framing  of 
a  bay  dormer  window,  ready  for  boarding, 
battening,  slating,  leadwork,  etc.  The  side- 
lights of  the  window  are  fixtures,  the  front 
casement  opening  outwards.    Figs.  676  to 


676  and  680.  At  Fig.  676,  in  order  that 
the  construction  may  be  clearly  shown, 
the  brickwork  is  carried  up  level  with  the 
lower  plate  only  ;  but,  of  course,  the  wall 
when  completed  would  be  finished  flush 
with  the  tops  of  the  rafters.  The  first 
trimmer  for  the  dormer  would  be  formed 
by  the  two  stout  rafters,  having  a  trimmer 
fixed  at  the  lower  end  of  the  window  and 
another  at  the  ceiling  level  of  it,  the  short 
rafters  being  fixed  to  these  trimmers  as  shown. 


FRAMEWORK  OF  DORMER  WINDOWS. 


187 


North  Country  Style.  roof  timbers  are  trimmed  to  give  the  neces- 

The  arrangement  next  shown  is  that  most  sary  opening,  and  two  stout  raking  pieces, 
generally  favoured  in  the  North  of  England,     9  in.  by  3  in.,  are  provided  to  carry  the 

sides  of  the  dormer  where  the  latter  is  of 
large  size.    These  rakers  are  notched  (prefer- 


.14  BARiSE  BO;^(^D* 


V  4'  6"  »  

Fig.  682.— Front  of  Dormer,  North  Country  Styh 

ably  dovetailed)  to  purUns  as  will  be  illus- 
trated, and  are  fixed  with  joint  bolts  at  their 
head  and  foot.  Any  intermediate  purlin 
can  be  trimmed  into  these  rakers  where 
necessary,  and  the  design,  as  well  as  the 
dimensions,  can  be  easily  adapted  to  suit 
where  side-Hghts  and  casement  sashes  are  local  conditions  or  the  special  require- 
required.    In  constructing  the  window,  the     ments  of  any  given  case. 


Fig.  684.— Joints  in  Angle  Post. 


188 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


,H^D  OFSIDtFF^aME. 


n'.  \k' 


_PURL1N  \\A 


Fig.  685. — Construction  of  North  Country  Dormer  Window. 


Fig.  686,  —  Enlarged 
Section  of  North 
Country  Dormer 
Window. 


Construction  of  North  Country 
Dormer  Window. 

The  dormer  consists  of  a  front  (Fig.  682) 
and  two  side  frames  (Fig.  683),  the  latter 
being  made  to  the  slope  of  the  roof,  and  being 
rebated  for  the  insertion  of  a  2-in.  sash  from 
the  outside.  The  stile  of  the  side  frame 
serves  as  the  angle  post,  and  in  a  small 
dormer  the  head  and  sill  of  the  front  frame 
are  tenoned  directly  into  it.  In  a  larger 
dormer,  however,  the  method  here  shown  is 
much  more  convenient  to  adopt,  especially 
where  there  are  muntins  in  the  front  frame, 
as  the  latter  is  made  as  a  separate  frame, 
with  light  stiles  tenoned  to  the  head  and 
sill,  which  are  tenoned  to  the  angle  posts  and 
secured  and  drawn  tight  with  bed  bolts  as 
shown  in  detail  (Fig.  684).  When  fixed,  the 
stile  of  the  front  frame  should  also  be 
screwed  through  the  rebate  to  make  a  per- 
fectly close  joint  between  the  angle  post 
and  the  front  frame.  The  roof  in  this  case 
is  made  to  overhang  all  round  (see  Fig.  685). 
The  ridge  and  heads  of  the  side  frames  are 
allowed  to  project  beyond  the  gable,  to  carry 
the  overhanging  spars,  bargeboards,  and 
finial.  The  overhanging  sides  are  formed 
by  the  spars  projecting  to  the  required 
amount ;  the  spar  feet  are  covered  on  the 
soffit  by  a  soffit  board  tongued  into  the 
head  of  the  frame  and  into  a  fascia  board 


FRAMEWORK  OF  DORMER  WINDOWS. 


nailed  to  the  ends  of  the  spars.  The  barge- 
boards  are  shaped  and  pierced,  and  are 
provided  with  a  double-splayed  capping,  into 
which  the  bargeboards  and  bed  mould  are 
housed,  and  which  projects  over  the  gutter 


Fig.  687. 


-Detail  Horizontal  Section  through 
Angle  and  Sashes, 


behind  the  gable  (see  detail,  Fig.  686).  The 
gable  and  the  overhanging  portion  of  the 
front  of  the  dormer  are  boarded  with  1-in. 
tongued,  grooved,  and  V-jointed  boards. 
The  front  frame  is  fitted  with  casements  that 
open  outwards  (see  Fig.  687),  and  are  hung 
with  3i-in.  brass  butts.    The  interior  is 


Fig.  688. — Detail 
Vertical  ,  Section 
through  Eaves  of 
Roof  and  Side 
Frame. 


Fig.  690.— Longitudinal  Section  through  Dormer 
on  Line  A  A,  Fig.  689. 

ceiled  level  up  to  the  purhn,  the  ceiling 
joists  resting  on  the  heads  of  the  side  frames 
and  nailed  to  them,  the  whole  being  lathed 
and  plastered  and  a  small  scotia  mould  fixed 
in  the  angle  (see  detail.  Fig.  688).    All  the 


Fig.  689. — Front  Elevation  of  Dormer. 


190 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig,  691. — Conventional  View  of  Trimming  and 
Dormer  completely  framed  together  for  placing 
in  position  and  fixing. 

woodwork  (except  the  sills  of  the  frames 
and  sashes)  is  of  first-class  red  or  yellow 
deal,  free  from  any  defects,  especially  sap, 
and  is  painted  two  coats  of  good  red-lead 
and  oil  paint  before  being  fixed.  The  sills 
of  the  frames  and  sashes  are  of  sound  oak. 
The  joints  of  the  woodwork  are  wedged  and 
pinned  with  oak  pins,  each  joint  being 
coated  with  thick  white-lead  or  red-lead 
paint  before  insertion.  The  casement  sashes 
have  brass  shutter  squares  at  their  salient 
angles,  to  prevent  alteration  of  form  through 


Fig.  692.— 
Enlarged  Details 
through  Sill  and 
Head  of  Frame. 


FRAMEWORK  OF  DORMER  WINDOWS. 


191 


Fig.  695.— 
Enlarged  Section 
through  Case- 
ments and  Angle 
Posts  D  D,  Fig. 
689. 


Fig,  696. — Conventional  Views  of  Joints 
between  Post,  Sill,  and  Bottom  Rail  of 
Side  Light  (Fig.  697). 


192 


CARPENTKY  AND  JOINERY. 


the  weight  of  the  glazing.  It  is  not  in- 
tended to  describe  the  construction  of 
sashes  in  this  chapter,  that  subject  being 
reserved  for  exhaustive  treatment  later. 


represents  the  elevation,  Fig.  690  being  a 
longitudinal  section.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  front  consists  of  a  frame  with  casement 
— sashes  opening  outwards — and  the  side  is 


Fig.  699.— Plan  of  Naked  Framework. 


Fig.  698.— Elevation  of  the  Naked  Timber  Work 
in  the  Side  and  End  of  ] 

Another  North  Country  Dormer 
Window. 

The  kind  of  dormer  that  is  used  where 
it  is  desired  to  gain  as  much  light  as  pos- 
sible is  shown  by  Figs.  689  and  690.  Fig.  689 


of  the  Framing  for  a  Large  and  a  Small  Dormer, 
pped  End  Mansard  Roof. 

framed  with  bars  for  glazing.  At  Fig.  691 
the  trimming  is  clearly  shown  ;  on  each 
side  of  the  opening  a  stout  rafter,  4  in.  by  3  in., 
is  provided,  and  at  the  top  of  the  opening  a 
trimmer  is  tenoned  through  the  rafter  and 
keyed  (Fig.  691).    This  trimmer  is  mortised 


194 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


to  receive  the  upper  rafters  as  shown  at  a. 
A  deeper  piece  of  stuff  is  used  for  the  trimmer, 
B,  against  which  the  lower  rafters  butt.  This 
trimmer  is  fixed  to  the  stout  rafters,  and  is 
allowed  to  project  as  shown  so  as  to  sup- 
port the  sill  of  the  dormer.  Fig.  691, 
which  is  a  conventional  view  of  the  dormer 
framed  together  ready  to  be  fixed  in  its 
proper  position,  also  shows  how  the  stout 
rafters  are  supported  by  ashlering  studs 
which  are  fixed  to  them. 


Fig. 

Constructional  Details. 

The  preparing  of  a  dormer  of  this  descrip- 
tion is  the  work  of  a  joiner  rather  than  of  a 
carpenter.  A  few  leading  particulars  of 
the  construction  will  now  be  given.  The 
angle  posts  are  rebated  and  beaded  to  receive 
casement  sashes  ;  they  are  also  chamfered 
on  the  outside  and  moulded  on  the  inside  as 
shown  by  the  enlarged  section.  Fig.  695. 
These  angle  posts  are  connected  to  the  double 
sunk  oak  sill  in  the  way  represented  at 
Fig.  696,  and  to  the  bottom  rail  of  the  side 
light  by  a  barefaced  haunched  tenon  as 
shown  at  A  in  the  same  illustration.  These 
joints  may  be  held  together  more  firmly 
by  the  insertion  of  stout  screws  5  in.  long. 


or  bed  screws  may  be  used  if  desired. 
Fig.  697  shows  the  connections  for  the  post, 
the  head,  and  the  top  rail  of  light,  the 
joints  being  firmly  held  together  by  a  bolt 
inserted  from  the  outside  of  the  top  rail. 
This  bolt  is  passed  through  into  the  head  in 
which  has  been  made  a  mortice  to  receive  a 
nut,  as  indicated  at  B,  Fig.  697.  The 
bottom  and  top  rails  of  the  side  lights  are 
connected  by  mortice  and  tenon  joints  at 
their  upper  end.     The  top  rails  are  made  to 


project  beyond  the  posts  so  that  the  lower 
ends  of  the  bargeboards  may  be  fixed  to 
them.  The  ridge  also  projects,  and  is 
tenoned  into  the  finial  to  which  the  upper 
ends  of  the  bargeboards  and  moulding 
are  butted  and  fixed.  The  top  end  of  the 
top  rail  and  end  of  ridge  piece  are  con- 
nected by  means  of  two  pieces  of  |-in. 
boards.  The  ceiling  joists  of  the  dormer 
are  notched  down  on  the  top  rails  of  the 
side  lights  and  nailed.  The  rafters  or 
spars  are  cut  to  fit  the  ridge,  and  are  notched 
on  to  the  top  rails  as  shown.  The  two 
pieces  of  board  before  mentioned  receive 
the  ends  of  the  small  jack  rafters.  The 
gabled  part  of  the  dormer  is  formed  by  a 


FRAMEWORK  OF  DORMER  WINDOWS. 


195 


chamfered  muntin,  and  is  plain  boarded  on  with  white-lead  and  red-lead  before  they 

each  side.    Just  above  the  head  of  the  are   put   together.    In   better-class  work 

frame  a  moulding  of  the  section  shown  at  immediately  after  fixing  the  dormer  its  roof 

Fig.  691  is  planted  on  as  a  finish.    The  is  boarded  as  represented  in  section  at 

joints  of  the  framing  should  be  well  coated  Fig.  690.    The  bottom  rails  of  the  side  lights 


Fig.  702. — Plan  of  Half  Mansard  Roof  with  Flat  (part  boarded),  showing  Trimming  to  Dormer, 
Rolls,  Joists  for  Boards,  Bridging  Joists,  Rafters,  etc. 


19G 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


rest  upon  and  are  fixed  to  the  stout  rafters, 
and  the  finish  on  the  inside  is  formed  by- 
fixing  a  beaded  lining  as  shown  in  section 
at  E,  Fig.  693.  The  leading  dimensions  of  the 
various  parts  are  figured  on  the  illustrations. 


Stone  Gabled  Dormer. 

A  more  important  case  with  regard  to 
dormers  is  shown  by  Figs.  698  to  701. 
Reference  to  Figs.  698  and  699  will  show 
that  the  side  of  the  hipped  end  of  a  Mansard 


FRAMEWORK  OF  DORMER  WINDOWS. 


197 


roof  has  been  designed  to  provide  for  a  large 
stone-gabled  dormer  in  the  end,  a  general 
view  of  which  is  given  at  Fig.  701.  A 
dormer  of  equal  height  but  narrower  is 
provided  for  on  the  side.  Framing  for 
these  dormers  is  of  such  magnitude  as  to 
necessitate  the  provision  of  valley  rafters, 
A,  B,  c,  and  D,  Fig.  699.  The  framing 
for  the  smaller  dormer  is  similar  to  that 
for  the  larger  one  ;  therefore  it  has  not  been 


with  one  piece,  or  smaller  sheets  may  be  used 
with  rolls,  but  these  are  not  shown.  This 
is  an  important  example,  both  as  regards 
roofing  and  dormers  ;  but  further  description 
is  thought  unnecessary,  as  careful  attention 
has  been  given  in  the  preparation  of  the 
illustrations  to  show  clearly  all  the  essential 
points  of  construction,  and  therefore  they 
should  present  no  difficulty  to  the  careful 
reader. 


Fig.  706.— Front  Elevation  of  completed  Dormer 
Window  and  Junction  of  Side  and  Flat. 

shown  in  the  conventional  view,  Fig.  700, 
which  is  drawn  so  as  to  leave  exposed  some 
of  the  main  members  of  the  roof.  It  should 
be  noted  that  in  Figs.  698,  699,  and  700  the 
masonry  is  only  carried  up  level  with  the 
wall  plate ;  the  parapet  and  gutter  bearers 
and  boarding  are  omitted  so  as  to  make  clear 
the  more  important  construction.  Fig.  701 
is  a  conventional  view  of  the  stone  gable, 
^vhich  also  shows  the  two  incHned  surfaces 
:>f  the  main  roof  slated  and  with  moulded 
'ascia  and  guttering,  with  a  lead  apron  under. 
The  roof  and  side  of  the  dormer  are  shown 
covered  with  lead.  Each  part  may  be  covered 


Fig. 


707. — Sectional  Elevation  through  B  B, 
Fig.  706. 


Dormer  in  Half  Mansard  with  Flat 
Top  Roof. 

Unlike  the  Mansard  roof  proper,  this  kind 
has  practically  no  upper  pitch,  nor  trusses, 


198 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


rafters,  etc.,  to  the  upper  portion,  and  thus 
there  is  no  loss  of  space.  It  is  used  largely 
where  intermediate  walls  or  partitions  for 
support  are  available  to  assist  in  carrying 
the  flat,  and  also  where  it  is  desired  to  get 
as  large  a  room  space  as  possible.  Dormers 
are  almost  always  framed,  and  form  an 
important  part  of  the  construction  of  this 
kind  of  roof.  Figs.  702  to  707  fully  show 
the  construction  of  this  description  of  a  roof 
with  dormers,  etc.  The  following  are  the 
general  particulars.  The  bridging  joists  of 
the  floor  are  cogged  and  nailed  on  to  a  re- 
bated wall  plate,  or  which  has  a  fillet  nailed 
on  it.  The  plate  to  receive  the  lower  ends 
of  the  rafters  is  notched  and  secured  to 
the  top  edges  of  the  joists  as  indicated,  the 
rafters  being  notched  into  this  plate  as 
shown  at  Fig.  705.  The  curb  plate  is  sup- 
ported by  the  rafters,  and  also  by  the  stud- 
ding as  shown,  the  latter  of  course  tenon- 
ing into  the  under  side  of  the  plate.  The 
bridging  joists  for  the  flat  are  out  of  8-in. 
by  2J-in.,  and  to  produce  the  necessary  fall 
the  first  7  ft.  is  tapered  from  6  in.  to  8  in. 
(see  A  to  B,  Fig.  703),  then  the  remaining  7  ft. 
has  a  firring  piece  2  in.  thick,  increasing  to 
4  in.  thick,  nailed  on  as  shown  at  b  to  c 
(Fig.  703),  the  drip  being  provided  for  at 
B.  Scantlings  are  nailed  on  to  the  firring 
described,  forming  the  joists  on  which  to 


nail  the  boarding  for  the  flat.  This  board- 
ing should  be  IJ  in.  thick,  grooved  and 
tongued,  and  cleaned  off  smooth  to  receive 
the  lead.  The  boarding  should  always  be 
fixed  running  parallel  with  the  fall  of  the 
fiat,  so  that  in  the  event  of  any  of  the  boards 
curling  up  and  thus  forming  hollows  in  the 
lead,  the  rain  will  not  be  retained  in 
puddles,  as  its  flow  is  not  interfered  with. 
Grooved  and  tongued  IJ-in.  boarding  is 
nailed  diagonally  on  the  rafters  to  receive 
the  lead,  as  shown  at  Fig.  704.  The  curb 
plate  having  to  span  8  ft.  over  the  dormer, 
it  is  strengthened  by  a  6-in.  by  4J-in.  lintel 
bolted  to  its  under  side  and  supported  by  the 
angle  studs,  as  indicated  at  Fig.  704.  The 
front  elevation  and  side  elevation  of  the 
completed  Venetian  dormer  window  are 
shown  at  Figs.  706  and  707.  The  ceiling 
of  this  is  arched  ;  the  ribs  to  carry  this  and 
the  boarding  are  shown  at  Fig.  704.  The 
framework  to  receive  the  completed  window 
is  fully  shown  at  Fig.  704.  The  junction 
between  the  side  and  flat  is  finished  with  an 
upper  fascia  and  a  lower  fascia,  and  soffit 
boards,  moulded  modillions,  guttering,  etc., 
as  shown  in  elevation  and  section  (Figs.  706 
and  707).  The  construction  of  the  dormer 
frame,  casements,  etc.,  will  be  treated  of  in 
a  subsequent  chapter,  where  a  number  of 
detail  illustrations  will  be  given. 


HALF-TIMBER  CONSTRUCTION. 


Introduction.  —  In  substantial  half -timber  substituted.  Head  and  sill  should  run 
work,  EngHsh  oak  is  used,  but  sound,  re-  through  and  be  framed  with  the  angle 
sinous  pitchpine  or  Scotch  pine  is  often     posts.    Mullions  should  be  tenoned  into 

the  horizontal  members,  and 
secured  by  draw -boring,  the  pins 
being  oak  |  to  1  in.  in  diameter, 
Split  and  then  shaped,  and  al- 
lowed to  project  from  the  sur- 
face about  I  in.  All  curved 
braces  should  be  made  from 
natural  curved  (compass)  tim- 
ber. Diagonal  braces  should  be 
halved  together  at  their  centres. 


Fig.  708.— Section  showing  Front  filled  in  with 
4^ -in.  Brickwork  Back-lathed  and  Plastered. 


Fig.  709.— Section  showing  External  Stucco,  Middle  Coat 
of  Lath  and  Plaster,  and  Internal  Lathing  and  Plastering. 


Fig.  710.— Section  through  Post  filled  in  with  9-in.  Brickwork 
—Front  Stuccoed  ;  Inside  Plastered. 

199 


i 

{ForFifjs.  711 
and  712  see 
next  page.') 


Fig.  713. — Alternative  Method  of 
forming  Angle  Post  of  Two  Pieces 
mitred  and  bolted  together. 

The  angle  posts  are  usually  8  in., 
9  in.,  or  10  in.  square,  and 
the  intermediate  posts  the  same 
width,  but  4  in.  or  6  in.  thick. 
The  head  pieces  and  sill  pieces 
are  of  the  same  scanthng  as  the 
angle  posts,  and  are  halved  at  the 
angles,  and  mortised  for  the  ten- 
ons. The  exposed  faces  of  the 
timbers  are  wrought  and  oiled  or 


200 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  716.— Front  Portion  of  Half-timbered  Cottage. 


HALF-TIMBER  CONSTRUCTION. 


20 


painted,  red-lead  mixed  with  boiled  oil 
loeing  used  for  all  joints.  Various  forms 
of  half-timber  work  are  shown  in  section 
by  Figs.  708  to  713  (scale  =  1  in.  to 
1  ft.).  In  Fig.  708  the  angle  posts  shown 
are  8  in.  by  8  in.,  and  the  intermediate  posts 
8  in.  by  ih  in.,  grooved  at  the  sides,  and 


ensures  greater  warmth  and  dryness.  The 
fillets  and  battens  are  fixed  to  the  sides 
and  backs  of  the  timbers  to  receive  the 
lath  and  plastering.  The  intermediate  studs 
are  shown  to  be  rebated  for  the  middle  coat 
of  plaster,  but  this  rebating  is  not  indis- 
pensable.      In   the   example  represented 


Fig.  717. 

Fig.  717.— Front  Elevation  of  Half-timbered  Cottage. 
Fig.  718.— Part  Side  Elevation  of  Half-timbered  Cottage. 


Fig.  718. 


filled  in  with  4:J-in.  brickwork,  which  is 
rendered  at  the  back  with  cement,  while 
small  fillets  fixed  to  the  sides  of  the  up- 
rights keep  the  brickwork  in  position. 
Battens  are  fixed  to  the  backs  of  the  timbers 
to  take  the  lath-and-plaster  work.  Sometimes 
the  horizontal  timbers  are  covered  on  the 
upper  side  with  sheet  lead.  Fig.  709  shows 
the  angle  posts  6  in.  square,  and  the  inter- 
mediate ones  6  in.  by  3  in.,  grooved  along 
the  outer  edge  for  external  stucco  or  rough- 
cast.   A   middle   coat   of   plaster  shown 

9* 


by  Fig.  710  the  timbers  are  filled  in  with 
9 -in.  brickwork,  with  roughcast  face.  The 
angle  posts  are  9  in.  square,  and  the  inter- 
mediate posts  9  in.  by  4  in.,  splay-grooved 
along  the  outer  edge.  This  form  is  very 
substantial,  and  some  building  bye-laws 
demand  it.  According  to  some  bye-laws, 
there  must  be  at  least  4J  in.  of  brickwork 
behind  all  timber  ;  then  if  the  angle  post 
is  above  5  in.  by  5  in.,  it  must  be  rebated  at 
the  back  (see  Fig.  711),  or  it  must  be  formed 
of  two  pieces  bolted  together  as  shown  in 


202 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


section  by  Fig.  712,  or  mitred  and  bolted 
together  as  in  Fig.  713  (p.  199). 

Fixing  Door=  and  Window =frames. 

Figs.  7U  and  715  (scale  =  1  in.  to  1  ft.) 
show  common  methods  of  fixing  the  door- 


Half  =  timbered  Cottage. 

The  application  of  half-timber  work  to  a 
cottage  is  shown  in  Figs.  716  to  721.  Figs. 
717  and  718  are  reproduced  to  a  scale  of 
J  in.  to  1  ft.    The  following  would  be  the 


Fig.  719. — Conventional  View  of  naked  Timber  Work  fitted  together. 


I 


and  window-frames  in  half-timber  work.  The 
posts  are  in  each  case  rebated  for  the  frame, 
and  sometimes  extend  the  full  thickness  of 
the  wall; 


leading  points  in  the  specification  : — The 
timber  (oak,  fir,  or  pitchpine)  to  be  of  sound 
quality,  without  defects,  thoroughly  sea- 
soned, and  wrought  on  the  exposed  sides. 


HALF-TIMBEE  CONSTRUCTION. 


203 


Angle  posts  tenoned  to  the  head  and  sill, 
and  the  sills,  9  in.  by  9  in.,  to  be  halved  at 
the  angles  (see  Figs.  719  and  720).  All 
intermediate  posts  to  be  6  in.  by  5  in.,  or, 
as  shown,  every  third  post  to  be  6  in.  by 
4J  in.  and  the  others  6  in.  by  3  in.  The 
front  braces  to  be  same  thickness  as  the 
posts,  as  shown.  The  head  to  be  from  9  in. 
by  4  in.  to  9  in.  by  9  in.  The  joists  to  pro- 
ject beyond  the  stonework  below,  and  tusk 
tenon  into  the  sill.  The  sills  to  be  connected 
by  wrought-iron  angle  plates  and  bolts. 
When  oak  pins  are  used,  two  are  usually 
inserted  at  each  joint.  The  gable  overhang- 
ing the  filling  in  must  be  of  light  character, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  708  or  Fig.  709,  in  the  event 
of  the  window  below  being  principally  con- 
structed of  wood.  In  some  districts  it  is 
compulsory  for  9  in.  of  brickwork  to  be 
fitted  in  the  gable  as  well  as  the  sides,  and 


Fig.  721. — General  View  of  Bracket  at  Angle 
and  Under  Side  of  Joists,  etc. 


Fig.  720. — Conventional  View  showing  Principal  Joints  in  Fig.  719. 


204 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


therefore  the  window  would  have  to  be  the  gable,  a  moulding  being  planted  on  the 

built  of  stone  with  mullions  strong  enough  upper  edge.    The  heads  of  the  side  framings 

to  give  the  necessary  support.    The  sills  project,  and  are  supported  by  brackets, 

(shown  as  moulded)  are  supported  at  the  These  heads  and  also  the  purlins  and  ridge 


Fig.  722.— 
South  Elevation  of 
Half-timbered  House. 


Fig.  723.— 
"West  Elevation  of 
Half-timbered  House, 


angles  by  wooden  bracket  pieces  whose 
bottom  ends  rest  on  stone  corbels.  In  the 
best  class  work  the  sills  are  moulded  on  the 
solid,  but  more  frequently  the  moulding  is 
planted  on  (see  a,  Fig.  721)  ;  the  meeting 
surfaces  should  be  well  painted.  A  project- 
ing transom  is  shown  in  the  upper  portion  of 


support  the  first  rafter,  bargeboard,  and 
finial.  Fig.  719  shows  a  part  of  the  naked 
framework  fitted  together,  and  Fig.  720 
shows  the  various  joints  in  the  framework. 
Fig.  721  is  a  general  view  of  the  bracket 
supporting  the  angle,  also  the  under  side  of 
the  joists. 


HALF-TIMBER  CONSTRUCTION. 


205 


Design  for  Half-timbered  House. 

The  south  elevation  (Fig.  722),  west 
elevation  (Fig.  723),  sectional  elevation  (Fig. 


wood  framing,  and  the  open  panels  plastered 
on  to  lathing,  with  grooves  in  the  sides  and 
top  of  the  timber,  so  as  to  give  a  key  for 
the  plaster.    The  face  of  the  plaster  is  kept 


Fig.  724.— 
Sectional  Elevation 
of  Half-timbered  House 


f\  \\f\ 

III 

m 
hi 

1 

f 

Iji  |iir 

rill 

Fig.  725.— 
East  Elevation  bf 
Half-timbered  House. 


724),  and  east  elevation  (Fig.  725)  show  a 
half-timbered  house  suitable  for  the  country 
or  suburbs.  Red  facing  brick  is  used  from 
the  base  to  the  first  floor,  the  remaining 
portion  being  half-timbered  work.  The 
last-named  can  be  carried  out  with  strong 


back  about  |  in.  from  the  face  of  the  wood- 
work ;  the  inside  is  lathed  and  plastered,  or 
it  may  be  of  wood  framing,  with  rough  brick 
nogging  between  the  panels,  and  then  plas- 
tered on  the  front  of  the  bricks,  also  on  the 
outside  of  the  framing  as  before. 


206 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Old-fashioned  Half-timbered  Gable. 

Figs.  726  to  729  show  part  of  the  half- 
timber  work  for  a  house,  the  design  being 
based  on  old-fashioned  examples.  The 
gable  projects,  and  is  supported  by  the  joists, 
which  overhang  and  are  tenoned  into  the 


should  be  set  back  1  in.  to  IJ  in.  from  the 
face  of  the  posts.  The  members  of  the 
framing  should  be  grooved  to  receive  the 
plaster  panel.  The  gable  bargeboard  is  cut 
out  of  2-in.  stuff  and  chamfered.  Fig.  72G 
is  a  general  view,  Fig.  727  a  front  elevation, 
and  Fig.  728  a  vertical  section. 


Fig.  726. — General  View  of  Half-timber  Gabled  House  based  on  Old  Design. 


sill,  and  some  additional  support  is  rendered 
by  the  three  solid  wooden  brackets,  two 
being  bolted  to  the  posts  of  the  porch  and 
the  third  built  into  the  lower  masonry.  A 
small  projecting  oriel  window  is  supported 
on  brackets  as  shown.  The  woodwork 
should  be  cut  from  sound  dry  balk  timbers, 
mitred  and  tenoned  together,  and  secured 
with  |-in.  oak  pegs,  which  should  project 
about  1  in.  from  the  face.  The  wood  fram- 
ing is  shown  backed  with  brickwork,  which 


Sham  Half=timber  Work. 

Sham  half- timber  work  (Figs.  730  and 
731)  is  formed  of  pieces  of  scantling  only 
IJ  in.  or  2  in.  thick,  but  as  wide  as  the 
timbers  used  in  real  half-timber  work.  The 
pieces  are  mortised  and  tenoned  together, 
and  often  pinned  as  shown.  Often  the  whole 
framing  is  set  up  in  position,  the  brickwork 
carried  up  against  it,  and  strips  of  wood  or 
wooden  bricks,  which  are  fixed  to  the  backs  of 


207 


208 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


the  members,  are  bonded  in.  Probably  this  the  stucco  or  roughcast.  The  sham  sill 
is  the  best  method.    An  alternative  is  first    is  often  finished  off  with  a  moulding  which 


to  build  the  brickwork  up,  and  then  to  fix  is  splayed  on  its  upper  edge  for  weathering, 
the  wooden  framing  to  wooden  bricks  or  Fig.  732  illustrates  a  case  where  the  side  sill 
plugs.    The  edges  are  bevelled  in  to  receive     b  runs  forward  and  has  its  end  carved.  The 


HALF-TIMBER  CONSTRUCTION. 


209 


Fig.  733. — Conventional  View  of  Projecting^.Window  supported  on  Moulded  Brackets. 

front  sill  c  tenons  into  this. 
The  joists  are  notched  out 
to  project  under  the  sill,  and 
have  their  ends  ornamented 
as  shown.  The  angle  is 
supported  by  the  moulded 
wooden  corbel  a. 


Supporting-  Upper 
Windows. 

One  of  the  general  methods 
of  supporting  an  upper  pro- 
jecting window  by  shaped 
brackets  fixed  to  the  posts 
is  illustrated  by  Fig.  733. 
A  carved  bracket  is  shown 
in  Fig.  734.  The  fixing  for 
the  corbels  or  brackets  is 
obtained  by  housing  the  back 
edge  into  the  posts  about 
2  in. ;  where  there  are  no 
posts  below  the  projecting 
window,  the  brackets  are 
built  into  the  wall. 


Fig.  734. — Pierced  and  Carved  Bracket  for 
supporting  Window. 


210 


CAKPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Gable  Treatment:  Panelling:, 
Bargeboards,  etc. 

Fig.  735  shows  the  upper  portion  of  a 
gable  and  part  of  the  side  of  a  half-timbered 


in  Fig.  736.  In  the  case  of  the  two  upper 
storeys  in  the  projecting  gable  of  a  house 
(Fig.  737),  the  first  floor  portion  is  formed  of 
timber  work,  with  brick  or  one  of  the  other 
general  fillings.    The  outside  is  covered  with 


Fig.  735.— Design  for  Gable  End  and  Side  of  House  based  on  Old  Examples. 


house,  with  posts,  sill,  transoms,  and  intertie, 
the  panelling  being  partly  filled  in  with 
ornamental  woodwork.  The  design  is  based 
upon  a  good  old  example.  The  treatment 
of  the  upper  portion  of  a  small  gable  is  shown 


tiles,  which  are  fixed  to  oak  laths  (see  Fig, 
738).  Half -timber  work  similar  to  what 
has  already  been  explained  forms  the  wall- 
ing of  the  attic  or  second  floor.  Figs.  739 
to  756  are  designs  for  bargeboards. 


I 


HALF-TIMBER  CONSTRUCTION. 


211 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


HALF-TIMBER  CONSTRUCTION. 


213 


Fig.  751.— Apex  of  Shaped  and  Chamfered 
Bargeboard. 


Fig.  749.— Section  through 
G  H  (Fig.  748). 


214 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


GANTRIES,   STAGING   AND  SHORING. 


Builder's  Gantry. 

A  GANTRY,  forming  a  temporary  wooden 
staging,  erected  over  a  public  footway,  is  an 
elevated  basis  from  which  building  opera- 


may  be  spaced  out  into  spans  ranging  from 
6  ft.  to  10  ft.  in  the  length  of  the  gantry,  and 
into  one  or  two  bays  in  the  width  from 
building  line  to  kerb.    The  timber  gener- 


fl 


Fig.  757.— Front  Elevation  of  Two  Bays  of  Builder's  Gantry. 


tions  are  conducted.  A  gantry  also  has  in  ally  used  for  standards  and  heads  is  square, 
many  cases  to  carry  all  the  front  scaffolding  and  any  section,  from  9  in.  by  3  in.  up 
of  the  building  ;  such  an  instance  is  illus-  to  12  in.  by  12  in.,  may  be  used.  In  the 
trated  by  Figs.  757  and  758.    The  bays     accompanying  illustrations  the  sections  used 

215 


216 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


are: — Fender  A,  12  in.  by  12  in.;  sole 
pieces  b,  8  in.  by  4  in.  ;  uprights  c  and  heads 
D,  8  in.  by  8  in.  ;  joists  e,  9  in.  by  3  in.  ; 
struts  F,  4  in.  by  3  in.  ;  sheeting  G,  9  in. 
by  3  in.,  or  9  in.  by  IJ  in.  (see  h)  ;  guard 
frame  j,  4  in.  by  2  in.  ;  guard  boarding  k, 
6  in.  by  f  in.  ;  cleats  l,  9  in.  by  4  in.  by  3  in.  ; 
handrail  M,  4  in.  by  3  in.  ;  and  impost  n, 
8  in.  by  4  in.  The  dogs  are  out  of  f  in. 
square  iron  (see  Figs.  760  and  761). 


centres.  Those  coming  immediately  over 
the  uprights  are  dogged  to  the  heads  with 


Fig.  758.— Sectional  Elevation  of  Builder's 
Gantry, 


Erecting  the  Gantry. — In  erecting  the 
gantry,  the  practice  is  to  first  lay  down 
the  sole  pieces,  then  set  out  the  position  of 
the  standards  on  them.  These  standards 
are  then  cut  ofi  to  the  required  length,  allow- 
ing for  the  difference  in  level  owing  to  the 
fall  of  the  footway.  The  uprights  are  now 
placed  in  position,  dogged  to  the  sole  pieces, 
and  temporarily  braced  with  scaffold  boards 
or  any  other  handy  material.  The  heads 
are  next  laid  on  the  uprights  and  dogged  to 
them  ;  the  bridging  joists  are  thrown  across 
the  heads  and  spiked  at  from  15-in.  to  2-ft. 


Fig.  759. — Enlarged  View  of  Impost  Piece  of 
Builder's  Gantry. 

those  shown  at  Fig.  761  (sometimes  known 
as  "  bitches ").  The  gantry  may  now  be 
braced  as  shown  in  Figs.  757  and  758,  the 


Fig.  760. — Dog  used  for     Fig.  761. — Bitch  used  for 
Builder's  Gantry.  Builder's  Gantry. 

latter  showing  three  different  methods  of 
cutting  the  braces  in  general  use.  Fig.  759 
illustrates  an  impost  piece,  used  for  the  pur- 


Fig.  762. 


Fig.  763. 


Fig.  762.— Method  of  Finishing  End  of  Fender  of 

Builder's  Gantry. 
Fig.  763.— Enlarged  View  of  Cleat  for  Builder's 
Gantry. 

pose  of  giving  a  greater  bearing  surface 
where  a  joint  occurs  in  the  head.    Fig.  758 


GANTRIES,  STAGING,  AND  SHORING. 


217 


illustrates  two  methods  of  sheeting.  If  the 
9-in.  by  3-in.  sheeting  be  used,  then  the 
whole  area  of  the  platform  should,  previous 
to  laying  the  deals,  be  covered  with  tarred 
felt,  to  prevent  water  percolating  through 
to  the  annoyance  of  the  public.  Or,  if 
double  sheeting  scaffold  boards  be  used,  the 


contact  with  it  will  glide  off ;  this  is  a  very 
desirable  precaution. 

Dogs.— Figs.  760  and  761  are  the  types 
of  dogs  used  in  the  above  class  of  work. 
They  run  from  12  in.  to  18  in.  in  length, 
and  with  points  from  2  in.  to  3  in.  long. 
That  shown  at  Fig.  760  is  used  for  heading. 


Fig.  764. — Conventional  View  of  Gantry. 


joints,  both  lateral  and  heading,  should  be 
lapped.  The  platform  is  then  sanded,  and 
the  sand  worked  into  the  joints  with  a  broom. 
The  guard  frame  is  then  fixed  and  boarded 
to  the  height  shown  at  Figs.  757  and  758. 
The  fender  may  now  be  laid  in  the  gutter 
and  dogged  to  the  uprights,  and  the  handrail 
fixed  to  cleats  between  the  uprights,  at 
from  3  ft.  to  3  ft.  6  in.  from  the  ground. 
Fig.  762  shows  how  the  end  of  the  fender 
should  be  cut  so  that  any  vehicle  coming  in 

10 


lateral,  and  shoulder  joints,  and  that  at 
Fig.  761  (which  is  made  with  its  points  at 
right  angles  to  each  other,  and,  as  already 
remarked,  is  sometimes  known  as  a  "  bitch  ") 
is  used  in  positions  where  it  holds  more 
effectively  than  the  other,  such  as  the  fender 
to  the  uprights  and  the  joists  to  the  heads, 
etc.  They  are  made  rights  and  lefts,  or,  as 
it  is  often  termed,  in  pairs.  Fig.  763  is  a 
view  of  a  cleat  as  spiked  to  the  upright  to 
receive  the  thrust  of  the  strut. 


218 


CAEPENTKY  AND  JOINERY. 


I!  ^  a  ii   i  i  H  i  i 


^  Boarding 


Fig.  765.— Elevation  of  Gantry. 


Fig.  767.— Conventional  Detail  at  Head  of  Post. 


Fig.  769.— View  of  Straining  Piece  and  Strut 
butting  against  it. 


Fig.  766.— Section  through  Gantry. 

Another  Gantry. 

Figs.  764  to  766  are  illustrations  of  a  gantry 
for  use  over  a  pavement  8  ft.  wide  and  with 
staging  12  ft.  from  the  ground.  A  con- 
ventional sketch  of  the  gantry  is  given  at 
Fig.  764,  and  views  of  the  necessarv  joints 
by  Figs.  767  to  769. 


Fig.  768.— View  showing  Cleats  supporting 
Posts. 


i 


GANTRIES,  STAGING,  AND  SHORING. 


219 


Builder's  Stag^ing-. 

A  portion  of  an  important  specimen  of 
builder's  staging  is  shown  in  front  and 
side  elevation  respectively  by  Figs.  770  and 
771.  Staging  of  similar  design  has  been  used 


9  in.  by  9  in.,  according  to  the  weight,  number 
of  stages,  and  strain  brought  upon  it.  The 
whole  is  braced  by  7-in.  by  2-in.  to 
9-in.  by  3-in.  scantlings.  The  upper  part 
of  one  bay  is  framed  out  as  shown  at  a  in 


Fig.  770.— Elevation  of  Builder's  Staging. 

for  many  important  buildings  in  difierent 
parts  of  the  country.  It  is  particularly 
serviceable  for  supporting  heavy  blocks  of 
stone,  girders,  and  other  materials.  Of  course, 
the  design  in  each  case  must  be  modified 
to  meet  requirements,  but  the  illustrations 
will  give  a  general  idea  of  this  kind  of 
structure.  The  principal  members  would 
be  of  whole  timbers  from  6  in.  by  6  in.  to 


Fig.  771. 


-Sectional  Elevation  on  Line  C  C 
(Fig.  770). 


the  illustrations,  for  the  purpose  of  support- 
ing a  travelling  hoisting  apparatus,  so  that 
materials,  etc.,  can  be  taken  direct  from  the 
vans  in  the  street  and  deUvered  on  to  either 
of  the  projecting  platforms  below.  The 
conventional  view  (Fig.  772)  will  make 
clear  the  general  arrangement  of  the  various 
members. 


220 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


GANTKIES,  STAGING,  AND  SHORING. 


221 


Derrick  Tower  Gantry. 

A  general  view  of  one  of  tliese  is  given  at 
Pig.  773.  There  are  now  very  few  large 
buildings  erected  without  the  aid  of  this 
form  of  gantry,  and  it  is  gradually  super- 
seding other  forms,  on  account  of  the  follow- 
ing considerations  :  Occupying  a  small 
space,  by  the  double  movement  of  the  jib, 
material  can  be  raised  from  the  ground  on 


usually  built  of  baulk  timber,  whereas  tli.e 
towers,  etc.,  are  principally  built  of  7-in. 


Fig,  773. — General  View  of  Derrick  Tower  Gantry. 


one  side  of  the  building,  and  deposited 
direct  in  its  proper  position  on  an  opposite 
side.  The  cost  of  erecting  is  low  compared 
with  other  kinds  of  stagings,  which  are 


battens  or  9-in.  deals.  There  are  three  or 
four  towers,  but  usually  only  three.  They 
are  about  6  ft.  square,  and  are  so  arranged 
that  lines  joining  at  the  centre  of  the  plan  of 


222 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


each  tower  form  an  equilateral  triangle.  Each 
tower  has  four  posts,  formed  either  of  three 
7-in.  by  2 J-in.  battens,  or  three  9-in.  by  3-in. 
deals  (Fig.  774)  bolted  together,  the  layers,  of 
course,breaking  joint.  Transoms,  8  ft.to  10  ft. 
apart,  of  similar  scantlings,  connect  the  posts 


material ;  thus  the  back  is  anchored  down. 
The  front  or  king  tower  has  a  standard 
through  the  centre  of  its  whole  length,  which 
is  held  to  the  posts  by  bracing.  This  stan- 
dard is  to  give  additional  strength,  for  the 
support  of  the  machinery  of  the  crane,  etc. 


Fig.  774. — View  of  Timber  Foundation  and  a  Bottom  Bay  of  an  Anchor^ Tower. 


by  being  bolted  to  them.  The  spaces  be- 
tween the  transoms  are  bow -braced  as  illus- 
trated. Each  tower  rests  on  a  double  plank 
foundation  (Fig.  774).  In  the  two  back  or 
anchor  towers  the  platforms  and  foundation 
planks  (see  Fig.  775)  are  connected  together 
by  m  ans  of  a  strong  chain,  the  lower  bay 
being  loaded  with  bricks  or  other  heavy 


The  upper  ends  of  the  towers  are  connected 
by  trussed  girders,  as  illustrated,  the  heads 
and  sills  being  about  9  in.  by  4  in.  and  the 
braces  and  struts  4  in.  by  4  in.,  the  whole 
being  held  together  by  |-in.  or  |-in.  bolts 
passing  through  the  heads  and  sills,  and 
thus  connecting  them.  The  towers  are  often 
tied  together  by  bracing. 


GAJ^TRIES,  STAGING,  AND  SHORING. 


223 


in  connection  with  the  construction  of  dock 
and  other  similar  work.  The  illustration 
represents  a  gantry  about  25  ft.  high,  18  ft. 
clear  between  the  sides  of  the  framing. 


^  ^1 


Fig-.  775.— Half  Plan  of  Platform,  and  Half  Plan 
of  Timbers  under  Planking. 


Fig.  776.— Conventional  View  of  a  Movable  Gantry  to  support  Traveller. 


Movable  Gantry  to  Support  Traveller.     The  beams  for  supporting  the  rails  are  34  ft., 
A  gantry  of  this  description  is  illustrated     allowing  the  traveller  to  work  on  the  out- 
at  Fig.  776.    These  are  used  principally     side  of  the  side  frames  when  required. 


224 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


These  are  trussed  with  IJ-in.  tension  rods 
as  shown.  The  main  members  are  12  in. 
by  12  in.,  braces  a  10  in.  by  12  in.,  internal 
braces  10  in.  by  8  in.,  braces  from  the  rail 
beams  to  the  posts  8  in.  by  6  in.,  sills  14  in. 
by  12  in.  The  principal  joints  are  secured 
together  by  straps  and  bolts  as  illustrated. 
The  traveller,  being  engineer's  work,  is 
omitted. 

Gantry  for  Traveller. 

Fig.  777  illustrates  a  form  of  gantry  use- 
ful for  lifting  heavy  blocks  of  masonry  re- 


Windov^  Stand. 

Figs.  778  and  779  show  the  construction 
of  a  stand  for  the  window  of  a  private 
house.  This  will  seat  thirty  persons,  in 
a  space  of  8  ft.  by  7  ft.  3  in.  Every 
precaution  must  be  taken,  in  erecting  these 
stands,  to  ensure  absolute  safety  and 
stability.  County  Council  and  other  officials 
are,  quite  justifiably,  most  stringent  in 
their  demands  for  proper  and  safe  struc- 
tures ;  and  no  fear  need  be  entertained 
upon  this  head  if  the  structures  here  de- 
scribed are  carefully  erected  as  shown. 


quired  in  building  thick  walls.  To  allow 
of  free  movement  of  the  blocks,  intermediate 
bracing  is  not  obtainable,  therefore  this  has 
to  be  arranged  for  at  the  outside  as  shown. 
This  kind  of  gantry  is  usually  built  of  baulk 
timber  from  8  in.  by  8  in.  upwards,  according 
to  the  height  and  strength  required.  The 
feet  of  the  outer  braces  are  frequently  bolted 
to  stakes  driven  firmly  in  the  ground  as 
indicated  in^  Fig.  777,  which  gives  a  general 
view,  in  which  the  principles  of  construction 
are  shown  with  sufficient  clearness  to  render, 
further  description  superfluous  to  the  prac- 
tical builder. 


Stands  for  Spectators. 

In  Figs.  780  and  781,  which  illustrate  a 
stand  to  accommodate  about  1,000  persons, 
the    lettering    is    explained   as   follows  : 

A,  Brace  shouldered  over  half  thickness ; 

B,  braces  halved  together  ;  c,  brace  cut  in 
between  principals  ;  D,  short  tenon ;  e, 
tenon  mortised  through  and  wedged ;  f, 
brace  bolted  on  face  of  principal ;  G,  bearers 
mortised  and  tenoned  together  and  pinned ; 
H,  bearer  mortised  into  raking  beam  and 
pinned  ;  i,  rail  dovetailed  to  post ;  j,  post 
mortised  to  receive  tenon  on  raking  beam 


226 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


GANTRIES,  STAGING,  AND  SHORING. 


227 


and  wedged  ;  k,  post  halved 
on  to  raking  strut ;  l,  rail 
halved  to  centre  posts. 

The  stand  is  70  ft.  long,  and 
will  contain  twenty  rows  of 
seats,  which  are  18  in.  high 
and  22  in.  wide.  The  princi- 
pals, which  will  be  nine  in 
number,  equally  spaced,  are 
framed  together,  as  shown, 
with  cross  and  raking  braces. 
The  cross  braces  are  shown  in 
Fig.  781,  in  which  the  opening 
marked  y  will  occur  between 
each  pair  of  principals,  and 
also  between  the  intermediate 
principals  situated  nearer  the 
centre  of  stand,  which  are 
cut  in  between  in  the  same 
manner  and  bolted  to  the 
uprights.  The  other  braces 
shown  in  the  back  view  will 
be  fixed  on  the  raking  strut 
X  in  Fig.  780.  Where  a  stand 
is  fixed  between  two  walls, 
no  side  struts  are  required  ; 
but  when  it  is  fixed  in  the 
open,  good  strong  raking 
struts  are  wanted  at  each 
end,  firmly  secured  to  the 
raking  beam  with  bolts.  The 
timber  throughout  should  be 
of  the  soundest.  The  raking 
beam  and  the  uprights  should 
be  11  in.  by  4  in.  ;  the  braces 
may  be  9  in.  by  4  in.  ;  sole 
pieces,  9  in.  by  4  in.  ;  framed 
bearers,  4  in.  by  4  in.  ;  seats, 
two  11-in.  by  3-in.  planks, 
well  spiked  to  bearers.  The 
timbering  at  the  back  is  run 
up  to  prevent  spectators  from 
falling,  and  an  awning  can  be 
fixed  to  it.  The  handrail 
newels  are  bolted  to  the  side 
of  the  raking  beam.  A  similar 
but  smaller  structure,  might 
be  made  to  provide  more 
comfortable  seating  accom- 
modation, the  seats  being 
26  in.  instead  of  22  in., 
thus  giving  more  room  for 
the  feet. 


228 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


6;x4lMOULD£D 
CAST /IRON 
GUTTER 


0x2'  oxe^YORK 

^P.C.  CONCRCTE 


Fig.  782.— Part  Elevation  for  Grand  Stand  for  Sports  Ground. 


Fig.  783.— Plan  of  Grand  Stand  for  Sports  Ground. 


Grand  Stand  for  Sports  Ground. 

Fig.  782  shows  part  elevation,  Fig.  783 
a  plan,  and  Fig.  784  a  section  of  a  stand, 
192  ft.  long  by  19  ft.  wide,  with  seating 
accommodation  for  one  thousand  spectators. 
The  stand  is  constructed  entirely  of  timber, 
trussed  and  braced  as  necessary  to  make  a 
perfectly  safe  structure.  Twenty  trusses 
are  framed  as  shown  in  Fig.  784,  and  tied 
together  with  raking  braces,  forming  the 
entire  length  of  the  stand.  Each  post  in 
the  truss  stands  on  a  Portland  cement 
concrete  base,  2  ft.  by  1  ft.  6  in.  by  1  ft.  6  in. 
The  seating  and  floor  are  carried  upon  9-in. 
by  3-in.  deals,  spaced  between  the  trusses, 
and  with  4J-in.  by  3-in.  framed  bracketing. 
The  floor  is  composed  of  1  J-in.  wrought-one- 
side  boarding,  the  risers  of  1-in.  floorboards. 
The  seats  are  of  11 -in.  by  1-o-in.  wrought 
pitchpine  boards  with  rounded  edges.  The 
front  of  the  stand  is  matchboarded  on  3-in. 
by  2-in.  wrought  framing,  with  a  moulded 
capping:    The  usual  offices,  with  refresh- 


X4.MQULPE(y' 
GUTJEB 


Fig.  784. 


-Section  of  Grand  Stand  for  Sports 
Ground. 


GANTRIES,  STAGING,  AND  SHORING. 


229 


ment  bar,  etc.,  etc.,  are  provided  ; 
and  a  space  called  the  press  box 
is  set  apart  for  reporters.  The 
seats  are  reached  by  flights  of 
teps,  as   shown.    The  roof  is 


Fig.  785.— Isometric  View  of 
Portable  Gallery,  showing  General 
Arrangement  of  Framing. 


carried  on  steel  stanchions,  constructed  as 
shown.  At  Fig.  784  a  diagonal  brace  con- 
nects the  front  and  back  of  the  stand  in 
the  manner  shown.    The  end  is  matchHned, 


13  0 


Fig.  786.— Side  Elevation  of  Portable  Gallery. 


and  finished  with,  handrail  to  the  rake  of 
the  seating.  The  stand  is  covered  with 
corrugated-iron   sheeting,   No;    16  gauge, 


screwed  into  position.  In  Fig.  783,  the 
letters  r  b  o  indicate  reserved  box  over  ; 
and  p  B  o,  press  box  over. 

Portable  Gallery. 

A  portable  gallery,  suitable  for  a  public 
hall  or  other  similar  building,  is  illustrated 
by  Figs.  785  to  791.  The  structure  is  one 
that  can  be  erected  and  taken  to  pieces  with 
little  trouble,  and  the  materials  can  be  stored 
away  until  again  required.  The  sizel  and 
form  of  the  gallery  will,  of  course,  vary  with 
the  requirements  to  be  fulfilled  ;  but  the 
method  of  framing  set  out  below  should  be 
strictly  observed,  for  the  safety  of  the  struc- 
ture depends  on  the  care  with  which  this  part 
of  the  work  is  carried  out.  The  framing 
should  be  properly  mortised  and  tenoned, 
and  in  some  parts  lap-jointed,  as  shown  in 
Figs.  785  to  789.  The  tenons  that  go 
through  should  be  wedged  into  their  respec- 
tive mortices ;  in  other  cases,  the  joints 
should  be  secured  by  bolts  and  nuts.  Butter- 
fly nuts  will  be  very  useful,  as  they  are 
readily  adjusted.  The  joints  at  a  and  b 
(Fig.  786)  are  shown  in  detail  by  Figs.  788 
and  789  respectively.  Each  piece  of  fram- 
ing should  be  properly  braced  (see  Figs.  785 


Fig.  788.— Enlarged  View  of  Mortice  and  Tenon 
Joints  at  A  (Fig.  786). 


GANTRIES,  STAGING,  AND  SHORING. 


231 


and  786),  and  should  be  again  well  tied 
together  by  braces  as  shown  in  Figs.  785 
and  787.  It  will  be  observed  that  these 
parts  are  notched  and  lapped,  as  little  as 
possible  of  the  wood  being  cut  away,  so  that 
the  framing  may  not  be  weakened  more 
than  is  absolutely  necessary.  The  main 
standards  should  be  about  9  ft.  apart,  as 
shown  ;  the  standards  between  these  need 
not,  for  ordinary  purposes,  have  more  than 
one  brace,  which  is  indicated  by  dotted  lines 
(Fig.  785).  This  intermediate  standard  is 
intended  to  support  the  boarding  forming 


Fig.  789.— Enlarged  View  of  Joints  at  B 
(Fig.  786). 


the  staging.  If  the  gallery  is  for  children, 
triangular  pieces  cut  out  of  11-in.  by  2-in. 
stuff,  and  firmly  secured  by  nails,  will  be 
suitable  (see  Figs.  785,  786,  and  790) ;  but 
if  it  is  intended  for  adults,  greater  height 
and  breadth  will  be  required,  and  it  will  be 
necessary  to  frame  the  supports  for  boarding 
of  2-in.  by  2J-in.  stuff,  as  shown  at  Fig.  791. 
These  supports  should  be  halved  together  and 
stub-tenoned  into  shallow  mortices  (Fig. 
791),  and  firmly  secured  by  nails.  A  simple 
method  of  securing  the  boarding  is  shown 
at  Fig.  790.  On  the  under  side,  ledges  are 
nailed  so  as  to  clip  on  each  side  of  the  sup- 
port ;  then  by  boring  holes,  as  shown  at 
A  and  a',  these  ledges  can  be  held  together 


with  an  iron  pin  or  bolt.  Suitable  sizes  of 
timber  will  be  4  in.  by  2  in.  for  the  smaller 


Fig.  790. — Enlarged  View  of  Triangular  Support, 
and  Method  of  connecting  it  to 
Boarding. 


Fig.  791. — Frame  Triangular  Support. 


braces,  and  4  in.  by  3  in.  for  the  larger 
braces. 

Shoring. 

Shoring  may  be  described  briefly  as  tem- 
porary supports  for  walls  that  are  considered 


CAKPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  792.— Single  Strut  Raking  Shore. 

unsafe,  or  for  girders,  etc.,  in  course  of  erec- 
tion or  repair.  The  three  most  typical 
kinds  of  shoring  are  raking,  horizontal,  and 


Fig.  795. — Triple  System  Raking  Shore. 


Fig.  793.— Detail  of  Head  of  Strut. 

dead  shores.  Every  other  kind  of  shoring 
appears  to  be  an  adaptation  of  one  or  other 
of  these  three  kinds.  In  shoring  and  under- 
pinning, probably  as  much  as  in  any  other 


Fig.  794.— Foot  of  Strut  with  Groove  for 
Tightening  Up. 


Fig.  796.— Raking  Shore. 


GANTRIES,  STAGING,  AND  SHORING. 


233 


branch  of  the  building  trade,  a  ripe  experi- 
ence is  essential  to  success.  It  is  necessary 
to  be  thoroughly  prepared  for  any  emer- 
gency that  may  arise  ;  for  it  is  only  when 
the  cutting  away  is  actually  commenced 
that  it  becomes  possible  to  find  out  exactly 
what  circumstances  have  to  be  met.  The 
first — and  the  most  important — thing  is  to 
secure  a  solid  base  to  shore  from.  If  this  is 
not  obtained,  the  support  given,  or  supposed 
to  be  given,  is  a  deceit.  There  may  be  a 
cellar  at  the  point  where  the  shores  have 
to  be  erected.  If  a  strong  wall  of  the  cellar 
is  not  available  at  a  suitable  point,  then  the 
point  of  support  must  be  found  outside  on 
the  pavement  or  roadway.  If  it  is  earthy 
ground,  try  it  with  a  crowbar.  It.  may  be 
sohdified  to  a  certain  extent  by  ramming, 
or  thick  planks  may  be  placed  to  form  a 
solid  platform. 

Raking  Shores. — The  most  simple  type  of 
raking  shore  is  that  consisting  of  only  one 
principal  strut,  as  shown  in  Fig.  792.  It  is 
erected  thus  : — At  a  little  way  down,  usually 
at  about  2  ft.  from  one  end  of  the  "wall- 
piece,"  a  hole,  rectangular  in  shape,  is  cut 
to  take  the  "  needle "  ;  and  when  the  wall- 
piece  is  in  position,  the  needle  fits  into  a 
hole  in  the  wall  made  by  removing  a 
half -brick.  The  needle  also  projects  be- 
yond each  side  of  the  wall-piece  to  receive 
the  head  of  the  principal  strut.  To  counter- 
act the  upward  thrust  of  the  shore,  a  cleat  is 
nailed  over  the  needle.  These  details  are 
shown  more  clearly  in  Fig.  793.  A  secondary 
strut,  as  illustrated,  is  necessary.  The  sole 
piece  or  footing  block  is  a  timber  balk  let 
into  the  ground,  and  a  cleat  is  nailed  on  that 
also  to  keep  the  foot  of  the  shore  from  slip- 
ping. In  soft  soils  a  httle  timber  platform  is 
placed  to  receive  the  sole  piece  indicated  in 
Fig.  795.  Sometimes  wedges  are  driven  in 
at  the  foot  of  the  principal  strut,  but  the 
heavy  hammering  necessary  to  drive  them 
home  is  likely  to  defeat  the  purpose  for  which 
the  shore  is  being  erected.  The  more 
approved  method  of  tightening  up  is  to  cut 
a  groove  in  the  foot  of  the  shore  (Fig.  794), 
and  gradually  lever  it  into  position.  The 
most  common  type  of  raking  shore  is  that 
I  shown  in  Fig.  795,  which  is  really  a  triple 
'  system  on  the  same  principle  as  that  shown 
by   Fig.   792;    The  illustration  therefore 


explains  itself  in  the  light  of  the' foregoing 
description.  The  top  and  middle  shores  are 
called  top  and  middle  rakers  respectively  ; 
the  underneath  one  of  all  is  the  bottom 
shore.  This  arrangement  has  to  be  strength- 
ened by  more  than  one  secondary  strut, 
on  account  of  the  length  of  the  top  raker, 
and  for  this  purpose  pieces  of  timber  are 
brought  right  back  to  the  wall  and  nailed 
to  the  shores  and  wall-piece  as  shown  at  a 
in  Fig.  795.  In  the  still  more  intricate 
system  of  four  shores  sometimes  seen,  the 
topmost  strut  is  called  the  rider  shore. 

Scantlings  of  Shoring  Timbers. — The  fol- 
lowing table  of  shores  and  scantlings  has 
been  found  useful  (taking  the  angle  of  the 
shore  at  about  65°)  : — 


Height  of  Wall  up  to 

Number  of 
Shores. 

Scantling. 

15  ft.  to  30  ft  

2 

6"  X  6" 

40  ft  

3  • 

8"  X  8" 

50  ft.  and  beyond 

4 

9"  X  9" 

Beyond  50  ft.,  if  the  distance  apart  between 
each  system  exceeds  12  ft.,  the  scanthng  of 
each  shore  should  be  12  in.  by  9  in. 

Erecting  a  Raking  Shore. — Let  it  be 
assumed  that  a  building  requires  support, 
and  that  raking  shores  are  in  this  case  most 
suitable.  The  work  can  be  carried  out 
according  to  the  following  directions  given 
by  Mr.  H.  A.  Davey  in  a  paper  read  in  1899 
at  the  British  Institute  of  Certified  Carpen- 
ters. All  the  window  openings  must  be 
strutted,  and  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
brickwork  is  not  jarred  more  than  is  abso- 
lutely unavoidable.  Next  find  out  the 
heights  of  the  floors  and  the  thickness  of  the 
wall,  and  make  a  rough  sketch,  to  any  scale, 
of  a  vertical  section  of  the  wall.  The  next 
step  is  to  decide  where  to  pitch  the  foot  of 
the  shores,  and  great  care  must  be  taken 
in  making  this  selection  ;  for  the  shores, 
should  the  footblock  yield  to  their  pressure, 
would  become  a  source  of  danger  instead 
of  a  support.  Old  drains  and  vaults  will 
probably  give  most  trouble  in  this  respect, 
but  everything  must  be  made  solid  before 
the  shore  is  put  into  position.  In  the  case 
of  a  vault,  Mr.  Davey  found  the  most  satis- 
factory treatment  was  to  run  the  shore 


11 


234 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


through  the  crown  to  firm  ground.  Old 
drains  can,  as  a  rule,  be  either  cleared  away 
or  filled  in.  The  angle  the  shore  should 
make  with  the  horizon  is  generally  decided 
by  the  width  of  the  pavement ;  but  assuming 
that  there  is  no  distance  given,  then,  to 
obtain  the  maximum  thrust,  the  shore  would 
have  to  be  inclined  at  an  angle  of  45°  with 
the  ground ;  but  there  are  two  reasons 
against  so  large  an  angle  :  (1)  The  shore 
would  take  up  too  much  space  ;  (2)  increased 
lengths  of  timber  would  be  required.  It  has 
been  decided,  therefore,  that  in  practice  the 


(this  is  quite  near  enough  for  all  practical 
purposes),  and  from  E  draw  a  vertical  line 
intersecting  d  produced  at  f,  and  the  re- 
sultant H  of  the  forces  d  and  c  will  lie  be- 
tween B  and  F  and  in  the  direction  of  the 
foot  of  the  shore  ;  so  a  line  drawn  from  g 
to  the  centre  of  b  f  will  be  the  mean  of  the 
directions  the  resultant  H  will  take.  At  g 
draw  a  line  at  right  angles  to  H,  and  this 
line  will  represent  the  face  of  the  footblock. 
It  will  be  seen  by  this  that  the  footblock 
cannot  be  at  right  angles  to  the  shore,  owing 
to  the  resultant  of  the  forces  acting  outside 


k 

^  COACH    SCREWS  / 

/.'  /'NX 
,8  X  8'  \\, 

//    //X  // 

/5X3/  // 

WEDGES^ 

V    i/\  NX 
5X4   'joint  \\ 

-9X2  // 
/X  5  X  4 

V  tl  " 
^4X3 

-36  0- 


GROUND  LINE 


4x5 


Fig.  797.— Single  Flying  Shore. 

best  angle  for  the  top  raker  shall  be  between 
60°  and  70°  (see  Fig.  796).  Draw  the  face 
of  wall,  position  of  joists  and  wall  plate  on 
face  of  wall,  draw  a  line  from  a  making  an 
angle  of  60°  with  the  ground  line  ;  on  each 
side  of  this  line  set  off  half  the  thickness  of 
the  shore  (assuming  whole  timber  is  being 
used,  which  should  always  be  the  case), 
and  where  the  centre  line  intersects  the 
wall  plate  at  b  draw  lines  to  represent  the 
needle,  and  cleat  nailed  above  it ;  this 
finishes  the  head  of  the  shore  for  the  present. 
Now  discover  the  angle  the  footblock  should 
make  with  the  shore.  Draw  fines  c  and  D 
to  represent  the  horizontal  and  vertical 
forces  acting  at  the  back  of  the  wall  and 
opposite  the  head  of  the  shore,  assume  the 
cei)    e  of  gravity  of  the  shore  to  be  at  E 


Fig.  798.— View  of  Head  of  Raker  and  Needle. 

the  shore.  The  shore  should  be  levered 
into  its  place  with  a  crowbar,  and  fixed  to 
the  footblock  with  iron  dogs.  The  practice 
of  driving  wedges  in  with  a  sledge-hammer 
is  most  dangerous,  and  no  man  understand- 
ing the  nature  of  the  work  would  run  such 
a  risk.  Sometimes  when  the  building  is 
very  high  it  is  necessary  to  put  up  the  top 
raker  in  two  pieces.  The  top  piece  is  then 
called  a  rider,  but  it  is  much  better  in  one 
piece  if  it  can  be  managed,  on  account  of 
the  objection  to  wedging.  Three  or  four 
pieces  of  1-in.  boarding  are  nailed  to  the 
sides  of  the  shores  and  wall  plate,  to  hold 
them  together  and  to  act  as  struts  and  ties. 
For  this  reason  all  the  shores  in  a  system 
should  be  of  the  same  size.  The  distance 
between  the  shores  should  not  be  more  than 


GAIt^TRIES,  STAGING,  AND  SHORING. 


235 


about  12  ft. ;  but  this  depends  on  the  posi- 
tion of  the  piers,  as  there  must  always  be  a 
good  abutment  for  the  head  of  the  shore. 
Mr.  Davey  does  not  recommend  putting  the 
shores  close  together  at  the  bottom,  for  the 


Horizontal  or  Flying  Shores.— Horizontal 
or  flying  shores  are  used  when  a  house  is 
taken  down  in  a  terrace,  and  the  adjoining 


Fig.  801.— Detail  of  Joint  of  Flying- 
Shore  at  B  (Fig.  799). 


Fig.  799. — Elevation  of  Double  Flying  Shore. 


Fig.  802.— Detail  of  Joint  of  Flying 
Shore  at  D  (Fig.  799). 


Wedqes. 
Straining  Piece  6x3 


Fig.  800.— Details  of  Joints  of  Flying  Shore  at 
A  (Fig.  799). 

reason  that  if  the  bottom  shore  has  to  be 
removed  first,  which  is  often  the  case,  it  is  a 
difficult  matter  if  they  are  close  together, 
whereas  by  leaving  a  space  of  about  G  in.  or 
8  in.  and  cutting  in  a  block,  it  is  quite  easy 
to  remove  any  one  shore  without  interfering 
in  any  way  with  the  others  in  the  system. 


Fig.  803.— Detail  of  Flying  Shore  at  C 
(Fig.  799). 

walls  require  supporting,  a  clear  way  being 
required  underneath.  Text-books  gener- 
ally limit  the  length  to  about  32  ft.,  because 
fir  timber  is  not  easily  obtained  longer  ;  but 


236 


CAKPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


pitchpine  may  be  obtained  in  70-ft.  lengths, 
so  that  if  flying  shores  are  the  best  for  the 
purpose,  there  is  no  need  to  trouble  about 
the  length.  Flying  shores  are  superior  to 
raking  shores,  because  their  thrust  is  imme- 
diately opposite  the  disturbing  force.  The 
most  common  type  of  flying  or  horizontal 
shore  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  797.  For  detail 
of  the  joint  between  needle  and  strut  see 
Fig.  798.  In  a  case  where  two  houses  of 
18-ft.  frontage,  each  in  a  terrace,  have  been 
pulled  down,  and  shoring  is  required  for 
supporting  the  adjoining  houses  on  each 
side,  the  strut  just  shown,  or,  preferably, 
the  one  shown  by  Fig.  799,  would  be  suit- 
able. The  joint  shown  at  Figs.  798  and  800 
is  to  be  preferred  for  this,  and  frequently 
the  struts  are  simply  butted  against  cleats, 
as  shown  at  Fig.  800 ;  these  should  be 
housed-in  as  well  as  being  spiked  to  the 
wall-piece  as  indicated.  The  method  of 
wedging  and  connecting  the  joints  with  dog- 
irons  and  straps  is  shown  by  Figs.  802  and 
803.  It  is  best,  where  practicable,  to  have 
the  horizontal  shores  cut  just  tight  between 
the  wall  plates,  but  should  they  be  a  little 
short,  a  pair  of  folding  wedges  may  be 
driven  between  one  end  of  each  shore  and 
the  wall- piece. 

Flying-  Shores  for  Buildings  of 
Unequal  Heights. 

The  examples  of  flying  shores  that  have 
just  been  illustrated  are  in  general  use  for 
buildings  that  are  of  equal,  or  nearly  equal, 
heights.  When  the  buildings  are  not  about 
the  same  height  the  shores  are  usually  of  a 
special  design  more  or  less  compUcated  to 
suit  each  particular  requirement  of  ^the  work 
to  be  executed.  Figs.  804,  805, 'and  806 
show  three  systems  which  are  somewhat 
similar  to  those  generally  illustrated  as  suit- 
able for  cases  where  it  is  necessary  to  sup- 
port a  high  house  by  means  of  a  flying  shore 
against  a  lower  house.  The  spans  would  not 
be  so  great  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  807,  which  is 
a  typical  case  of  shoring  up  the  side  of  a 
five-storey  house,  standing  in  a  narrow  street, 
the  traffic  of  which  must  not  be  obstructed 
by  raking  shores.  On  the  opposite  side  of 
the  street  is  a  house  that  has  to  be  used  for 
support ;  this  being  two  storeys  lower,  care 


GANTRIES,  STAGING,  AND  SHORING. 


Fig.  807. — Flying  Shores  over  Thoroughfare  between  Two  Houses  of  unequal  Heights. 


228 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


must  be  taken  to  distribute  as  much  as  pos- 
sible the  thrusting  force  of  the  shores  so  as 
to  prevent  injury  to  the  supporting  house. 
It  will  be  seen  by  examining  the  illustra- 


ing  points  e,  f,  and  G  ;  in  the  same  way,  if 
there  is  a  pressure  against  any  or  all  of  the 
points  A,  B,  c,  and  d,  the  pressure  is  also 
transmitted  to  the  same  points.  To  carry 
out  effectively  this  system  of  distributing 
the  pressure,  large  cleats  are  bolted  to  the 
horizontal  timbers  to  form  a  firm  abutment 
for  the  feet  of  the  struts.    The  timber  for  the 


Fig.  808.— Elevation  of  Dead  Shoring  for  con- 
verting Ground  Storey  of  Small  House 
into  Shop. 

tion  that  the  bracing  and  strutting  has  been 
arranged  so  that  when  the  wall  of  the  higher 
house  exerts  a  pressure  at  either  one  of  the 
points  A,  B,  c,  or  d,  this  pressure  against  the 
lower  house  is  transmitted  to  the  three  bear- 


Fig.  809.— Section  on  Line  X  Z  (Fig.  808). 


main  members  would  vary  from  5  in.  to 
9  in.  by  8  in.  according  to  the  span,  and  the 
amount  of  the  thrust  would  be  a  necessary 
factor  for  special  consideration  in  each  case. 
The  braces  and  struts  would  be  proportionate 
to  the  size  of  the  other  members. 


GANTRIES,  STAGING,  AND  SHORING. 


239 


Vertical  or  Dead  Shores. 

Vertical  or  dead  shores  are  in  general  use 
for  the  following  cases  :  (1)  When  the 
foundations  of  a  building  have  given  way 
and  it  is  necessary  to  support  the  walls  by 
shoring  in  sections  so  as  to  underpin  them 
during  the  renewal  of  the  foundations.  ,  (2) 
When  the  ground  storey  of  a  private  house 
is  converted  into  a  shop,  the  upper  part 
of  the  house  is  supported  by  shoring  until 
the  bressummer  is  fixed  in  its  place  and  the 
new  brickwork  built  upon  it  to  support  the 
old  wall.  (3)  Where  it  is  desired  to  raise 
the  front  of  a  shop,  then  it  is  necessary  to 
support  the  upper  part  of  the  structure 
whilst  a  new  bressummer  or  girder  is  being 
fixed  in  position  so  that  it  can  carry  the  wall 
above.  In  larger  and  more  important  classes 
of  buildings,  which  range  from  three  storeys 
high  upwards,  it  is  usual,  in  addition  to 
dead  shores,  to  use  raking  shores,  with  the 
object  of  steadying  the  walls,  as  well  as 
giving  a  certain  amount  of  support,  and  thus 
to  minimise  the  chance  of  accident  to  the 
building. 

Dead  Shoring^  for  Converting  Private 
Dwelling  into  Shop. 

Figs.  808  and  809  represent  a  usual 
method  of  shoring  in  the  common  case  of 
converting  the  ground  storey  of  a  small 
private  dwelHng "house  into  a  shop.  In  many 
cities,  for  such  small  jobs  as  this,  raking 
shores  are  not  used.  The  leading  methods 
of  procedure  may  be  summarised  as  follows  : 
The  windows  are  strutted  by  pieces  of  timber 
about  3  in.  by  3  in.  or  3  in.  by  4  in.  The 
sill  shown  at  a  is  supported  on  the  ground 
floor,  and  a  head  is  put  plumb  over  this 
against  the  ceiHng,  as  shown  at  b  (Figs. 
808  and  809)  ;  three  or  more  vertical  posts 
are  cut  to  a  length  to  fit  tightly  between  the 
head  and  the  sill.  Sometimes  the  posts  are 
cut  a  Httle  short  so  as  to  allow  of  a  pair  of 
oak  wedges  to  be  driven  between  the  post 
and  sill ;  in  this  way  the  dead  shores  or 
posts  support  the  floor,  and  thus  the  front 
wall  is  reheved  of  its  weight.  Holes  are 
then  cut  through  the  front  wall  about  6  in. 
or  a  foot  above  the  floor,  for  the  insertion  of 
needles  n  (Figs.  808  and  809).  It  is  usual 
to  put  a  needle  under  each  pier  between 


openings,  but  when  the  piers  are  very  wide 
it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  insert  two 
needles,  not  shown  in  the  illustrations.  The 
needles  are  supported  by  dead  shores  at 
each  end  s  (Figs.  808  and  809),  both  inside 
and  outside  the  building.  These  shores  rest 
upon  continuous  sills,  and  are  fixed  tight 
under  the  needles  by  the  insertion  of  oak 
wedges  w.  It  is  usual  to  brace  the  outer 
dead  shores  to  the  needle  by  a  piece  of 
scanthng  as  shown  at  c.  The  feet  and  head 
of  the  shores  are  also  secured  to  the  head 
and  sill  by  iron  dogs.  Next,  it  is  usual  to 
remove  sufficient  of  the  brickwork  to  allow 
of  the  insertion  of  the  bressummer  which 
spans  the  opening  and  to  which  the  floor 
joists  are  fixed  in  some  one  of  the  various 
ways.  Next  the  walling  is  made  good,  with 
brick  or  stone  laid  in  Portland  cement,  as  far 
as  this  can  be  done  without  removing  the 
needles ;  after  the  new  work  has  properly 
set  the  shoring  is  removed,  and  the  making 
good  of  the  wall  is  completed.  When  plac- 
ing the  shores  on  the  ground  floor  it  should 
be  carefully  noted  whether  this  is  sufficiently 
strong  to  support  the  shoring.  If  not,  part 
should  be  taken  up  and  the  sills  bedded 
firmly  on  the  solid  earth.  Where  there  is  a 
basement  it  would  be  necessary  to  support 
the  ground  floor  by  a  sill-head  and  dead 
shores,  similar  to  those  shown  in  Figs.  808  and 
809.  With  small  jobs,  sometimes  the  inner 
standard  supporting  the  needle  is  dispensed 
with  ;  pieces  of  square  timber  about  3  ft. 
long,  D  (Fig.  809),  rest  on  the  floor  directly 
over  the  head  b  ;  the  inner  end  of  the  needle 
rests  on  these  square  timbers ;  and  if  re- 
quired, pairs|of  wedges  are  driven  between 
the  timber  and  the  needle,  as  indicated  at  e. 

Shoring-   Large   Corner  House  for 
Converting  the  Ground  Storey 
into  Shop. 

A  famihar  example,  but  not  such  a 
common  one  as  that  just  described,  and  one 
that  is  of  much  greater  magnitude,  is  illus- 
trated by  Figs.  810  to  815.  A  case  of  this 
description  generally  calls  for  the  exercise 
of  considerable  skill  and  judgment,  especi- 
ally if  the  house  is  an  old  one.  Figs.  810 
and  811  show  a  five-storey  corner  house, 
with  an  area  on  the  two  fronts.  It  is  shown 
shored  up  for  the  conversion  of  the  ground 


240 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


floor  into  shop  premises.  The  raking  shores 
would  first  be  erected,  and  it  being  a  high 
house,  there  would  be  two  rakers,  and  also  a 
rider  G  to  k  (Fig.  811);  these  shores  would  vary 
in  size  from  6  in.  by  6  in.  to  7  in.  by  7  in., 


should  rest  on  a  soHd  foundation  formed  by 
the  solid  earth.  Standards  marked  a,  b, 
would  rest  on  this  sill  and  carry  the  head  b. 
In  this  way  the  ground  floor  would  be  sup- 
ported, and  in  its  turn  this  would  support  the 


Fig.  810. — General  View  of  Shoring  to  large  Private  House  the  Ground  Storey  of  which 

is  to  be  altered  into  Shop. 


according  to  the  special  requirements  of  the 
particular  case.  To  give  the  best  support 
the  needles  at  the  head  of  the  rakers  should 
be  inserted  just  below  each  floor.  As  there  is 
an  area,  the  feet  of  the  shores  would  require 
to  have  a  foundation  to  rest  on,  f  (Fig.  811) 
placed  at  least  2  to  3  ft.  from  the  area 
wall.    The  sill  in  the  basement,  a  (Fig.  811), 


sill  c,  the  standards,  the  head,  and,  in  a 
way,  the  whole  of  the  first  floor.  Occasion- 
ally the  shoring  is  continued  through  the 
floor  above,  and  this  wouldj  to  some  extent, 
reduce  the  load  on  the  needles.  Next,  holes 
would  be  cut  in  the  walls  for  the  insertion  of 
the  needles,  then  the  first  floor  d  (Fig.  811) 
would  have  a  hole  cut  for  the  inner  dead 


GANTRIES,  STAGING,  AND  SHORING. 


241 


242 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


shore  to  pass  through,  and  this  shore  would 
carry  the  end  of  the  needle.  The  outer 
dead  shore  l  (Fig.  811)  should  be  long 
enough  to  rest  on  a  sill  bedded  firmly  in  the 
area  as  shown.    As  a  stay  to  these  standards, 


angle  of  the  building  should  be  timbers  of 
much  greater  sectional  area,  as  they  have  to 
support  a  greater  weight,  and  all  chances  of 
movement  must  be  guarded  against.  Fig. 
812  is  the  general  view  of  the  top  end  of  a 


Fig.  816. — Shoring  required^  for  the  removal  of  a  Capital. 


Fig.  817. — Shoring  necessary  when  an  Arched  Stone  has  to  be  renewed. 


a  raking  strut  e  could  be  birdsmouthed 
on  to  a  plate  and  its  head  cut  to  fit  against 
the  shore,  which  would  have  a  cleat  fas- 
tened to  it.  When  these  do  not  fit  tight 
a  "gainst  the  walls  of  the  area,  blocks  should 
bs  placed  between  as  shown  at  m  (Fig.  811). 
The  needles  and  the  standards  carrying  the 


raker  at  its  connection  with  the  needle, 
the  cleat,  and  the  wall  piece.  Fig.  813 
shows  each  one  of  these  parts  separated. 
Fig.  814  is  an  enlarged  detail  at  g  (Fig.  811), 
showing  the  wedges,  etc.,  at  the  foot  of  the 
rider.  Fig.  815  gives  enlarged  details  at 
B,  c,  and  D  respectively  in  Fig.  811. 


GANTRIES,  STAGING,  AND  SHOEING. 


243 


Shoring  an  Arcade. 

Fig.  816  shows  the  method  of  shoring 
required  when  it  is  necessary  to  remove 
the  capital  of  a  column  a.  Sole  plates 
are  cut  between  the  bases  of  the  columns 
on  each  side  of  the  one  from  which  the 
cap  is  to  be  removed.  Ribs  cut  from 
6-in.  planks  are  fitted  into  the  arch,  the 
edges  fitting  perfectly  to  the  soffits  ;  the 
butt  joints,  cut  radiating  with  the  centre, 
must  also  fit  perfectly,  and  the  planks  are 
held  together  by  iron  dogs  ;  or  the  joint 
may  be  crossed  with  pieces  of  IJ-in.  deal,  as 


vary  according  to  the  weight  above  the 
arches.  If  there  are  very  high  and  heavy 
clerestory  and  roof,  an  additional  shore 
might  be  necessary,  but  should  be  kept 
almost  vertical.  Fig.  817  shows  the  timber- 
ing necessary  when  one  of  the  arch  stones, 
as  at  c,  is  to  be  cut  out.  Fig.  818  shows  an 
elevation,  and  Fig.  819  a  section  of  the 
timbering  necessary  for  the  removal  of  the 
shaft  D.  The  capital  is  kept  in  position  by 
the  collar  E,  which  is  fitted  round  it  and 
bolted  together,  and  in  turn  fixed  to  the 
shores.  Struts  f  and  shores  g  are  cut  tight 
under  the  collar.    The  centering  in  each 


Fig.  818. — Elevation  and  Section  of  Shoring  required  for  the  removal  of  a  Column. 


in  making  an  ordinary  centre.  Stretcher 
pieces  are  cut  tight  in  between  the  arches 
it  the  springing.    Shores  of  12-in.  by  6-in. 
'imber  are  then  cut  up  as  shown.  Folding 
^edges  are  not  used,  the  shore  being  pinched 
ip  tight  with  an  iron  bar ;  and  when  it  is 
lome,  pieces  of  timber  are  cut  in  between 
md  spiked  to  the  sole  plate.    The  shores 
ore  pitched  to  about  85°,  and  sufficient 
com  is  allowed  for  the  removal  and  the 
einstatement  of  the  capital.  Horizontal 
(ieces  are  fixed  on  each  side  of  the  shores 
t  B ;   these  are  allowed  wide  enough  to 
cribe  around  the  shaft,  and  so  hold  it  rigid 
uring  the  process  of  removal  and  fixing, 
'he  free  use  of  iron  dogs  is  recommended, 
nd  the  work  must  be  well  done  to  ensure 
access.    The  size  of  the  timbers  would 


case  may  be  made  additionally  secure  and 
strong  by  the  free  use  of  braces  and  struts. 

Shoring  the  Arcade  of  a  Church. 

This  work  calls  for  the  highest  skill  and 
judgment.  The  one  example  here  illustrated 
and  described  will  serve  to  give  some  idea 
of  the  nature  of  this  kind  of  work.  In  the 
portion  of  a  church  arcade  shown  by  Fig. 
819  there  are  cracks  in  the  masonry,  indicat- 
ing a  subsidence  in  the  foundation  of  one  or 
more  of  the  pillars  ;  it  is  assumed  that  it  is 
found  necessary  to  renew  the  foundation, 
The  first  thing  will  be  to  construct  strong 
centres.  In  the  case  illustrated  the  arch 
mouldings  can  be  supported  on  three  centres  ; 
the  middle  one  is  constructed  of  stuff  7  in. 
thick,  and  those  on  each  side  of  stuff  3  in. 


244 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


GAJ^TRIES,  STAGING,  AND  SHORING- 


245 


thick.  So  that  the  ribs  may  properly  fit  the 
intrados  of  the  arches,  templates  made  of 
J-in.  boarding  should  be  carefully  scribed  to 
fit ;    then  these  should  be  used  for  making 


Fig.  821).  The  raking  shores  l  h  and  k  m 
are  made  to  spread  at  the  bottom,  the  sill 
being  notched  out  of  the  solid  to  receive  the 
square  ends  of  these  ;    they  are  further 


Fig.  821. — Conventional  View  of  Central  Trestle  and  one  adjacent  to  Pillar,  also  of 
Part  of  Centres,  Collars,  etc. 


the  timber  ribs,  which  are  out  of  7-in.  by 
12-in.  and  3-in.  by  11 -in.  stuff  respectively. 
The  joints  between  the  ribs,  tie,  king-post, 
struts,  etc.,  are  clearly  illustrated  at  a,  b, 
and  c  (Fig.  823).  Strong  trestle  shores  are 
next  made  to  the  sizes  and  form  clearly 
shown  in  the  illustrations  (especially  see 


secured  by  fixing  on  cleats.  The  whole  of 
the  trestle  is  supported  by  a  large  timber 
sleeper  12  in.  by  12  in.  or  more,  as  the  case 
may  demand.  The  object  of  the  above 
arrangement  is  to  obtain  the  necessary  sup- 
port for  the  shoring,  at  sufTicient  distance 
from  the  pillar  to  allow  ample  room  for  its 


246 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


removal  or  the  further  shoring  of  it,  and  to  the  load  on  the  shores  adjacent  to  the  pillars, 
allow  sufficient  space  for  the  excavation  and  obviously  lessen  the  weight  on  the 
necessary  for   the   new   foundation.    The     ground  near  the  foundation.    In  the  case 


Fig.  823. — Conventional  View  of  Joints  of  Centres. 


centres  are  also  supported  in  the  middle  by 
trestle  shoring,  which  will  take  a  full  share  of 
the  load,  and  thus  to  a  large  extent  reduce 


Fig.  822.— Conventional  View  of  Collars  to  support 
the  Springing  of  Arches. 


of  ordinary  earths  the  excavation  for  the 
foundation  would  require  to  be  timbered 
strongly,  so  as  to  prevent  any  movement. 
The  shoring  having  been  placed  in  position, 
the  centres  can  next  be  erected  and  forced 
home  so  as  to  fit  the  arch,  by  wedging  up 
from  the  head  pieces  of  the  shore  as  in- 
dicated in  the  illustrations,  and  also  the 
several  parts  of  the  centres  themselves,  by 
the  wedges  shown  at  d,  e,  f,  and  G  (Fig.  819). 
The  centres  should  be  connected  together 
by  fixing  blocks  between  them,  or  by  bracing 
them  together  with  pieces  of  scantling.  As 
the  centres  might  not  directly  support  some 
of  the  stones  resting  on  the  capital,  two 
collars  should  be  made  ;  these  are  shown  in 
position  in  Figs.  819  to  821.  A  conven- 
tional view  of  them  is  given  at  Fig.  822, 
in  which  the  collar  at  h  shows  pieces  of 


GANTRIES,  STAGING,  AND  SHORING. 


247 


timber  which  have  been  accurately  scribed 
to  fit  the  soffit  and  mouldings  adjacent  to 
it  near  the  springing  of  the  arches.  The 
collar  at  K  is  at  right  angles  to  h,  and  has 
had  blocks  scribed  to  fit  the  moulding  and 
the  front  and  back  immediately  above  the 
capital.  These  blocks  are  bolted  to  the 
main  pieces  of  the  collars  as  indicated. 
The  collars  are  made  to  grip  firmly  to  the 


similar  to  those  which  have  been  treated, 
but  of  larger  scantlings. 

Shoring  to  Railway  Arch. 

The  illustrations  (Figs.  824  to  830)  show 
the  centering  and  strutting  employed  for 
shoring  up  two  arches  of  a  viaduct  over  a 
shallow  river.    A  scaffold  and  staging  to 


1  ^     '  ■ 

■ 

■ 

\k  ] 

1  1 

III'  _  1  1 

 1  \  \..  1  1  t=zi^  IM.. 

■'iiipjllllipniiHiiiiiNiiiiiiiiii™ 

■11'  1     1   :G'iir    1    1  "'III 

1    1    1   1  II 

Fig.  824. — Part  Elevation  of  Shoring,  showing  Half  a 
Principal,  One  Main  Strut,  etc. 


Fig.  825. — Part  Transverse  Section 
through  Arch  and  Shoring  on  Line  O  P. 


stonework  by  tightening  up  the  iron  bolts 
as  shown.  In  heavy  work,  of  course,  it 
might  be  necessary  to  have  two  bolts  at  each 
end  so  as  to  prevent  accident  by  the  break- 
ing of  one.  The  lower  collar  is  supported 
on  the  heads  of  the  trestle  shores,  and  it  in 
its  turn  supports  the  upper  collar.  If  it  is 
desired  not  to  remove  the  capital,  the  collars 
would  be  scribed  to  fit  the  pillars  immediately 
below  it,  in  which  case  the  collar  would  be 
supported  by  transoms  fixed  to  the  trestles. 
In  this  kind  of  shoring  dogs  should  be  freely 
used.  In  some  cases  it  might  be  necessary 
to  support  the  wall  of  the  arcade  on  each 
side ;    these   shores  would  be  somewhat 


work  upon  are  erected,  holes  are  cut  into 
the  piers  at  about  6-ft.  centres,  and  wood 
corbels  9  in.  by  9  in.  (g  and  h,  Figs.  824  and 
825)  are  set  in  firmly  by  wedging  and  filling 
in  with  Portland  cement.  On  the  upper 
corbels  transoms  K  are  placed,  their  centres 
being  supported  by  the  shores  l.  The  corbels 
G  support  a  plate  M  from  which  the  shores 
are  wedged.  The  radii  and  span  of  the 
arches  being  known,  a  full-size  drawing  is 
set  out.  The  templates  for  the  several 
pieces  of  ribs  are  next  made  ;  they  are  used 
for  cutting  out  by  the  handsaw  pieces  of 
timber  stuff  for  the  ribs.  The  struts,  tie- 
beam,  and  other  members  are  next  set  out 


248 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


from  the  drawings  and  the  various  joints 
made.  The  ribs  are  set  out  and  jointed 
with  the  tie,  heads  of  struts  and  king-post. 
Each  principal  is  now  fitted  together,  and 
when  found  satisfactory  each  of  the  parts 


forced  up  as  close  as  possible  to  the  soffit  of 
the  arch  by  driving  in  the  wedges  on  the 
plate  N.  If  a  lagging  does  not  fit  close, 
force  it  up  by  driving  wedges  under  it  on  the 
top  of  the  rib,  the  object  being  to  make  the 


Fig.  826. — General  View  looking  from  the  Under  Side,  showing  the  Arrangement  of  the  Various 

Members  of  the  Shoring. 


joining  together  is  worked,  thus  allowing 
each  principal  to  be  taken  to  pieces  and  sent 
to  the  job.  Iron  straps  are  provided  to 
secure  the  principals  when  re-erected.  Be- 
tween the  plates  n  and  the  tie-beams  of  the 
centres,  wedges  are  inserted.  Battens  are 
next  placed  on  the  ribs  to  form  the  laggings. 
Each  principal  and  the  laggings  are  then 


laggings  take  their  proper  share  of  bearing. 
To  keep  the  centres  upright,  braces  are  fixed 
between  each  pair,  as  shown  by  Figs.  825 
and  826.  The  former  figure  represents  a  part 
transverse  section  through  arch  and  shoring 
on  line  o  p  (Fig.  824),  the  latter  a  general 
view  (looking  from  the  under  side)  showing 
the  arrangement  of  the  various  members. 


GANTRIES,  STAGING,  AND  SHORING. 


249 


Fig.  827. — Conventional  View  of  Joints  at  Foot 
of  Centre  at  A  (Fig.  824). 


Fig.   831. — Conventional    View  of  Joints  ^  at  E 
(Fig.  824). 


Fig.  828. — Conventional  View  of  Joints  between 
Ribs  and  Strut  at  B  (Fig.  824). 
Fig.  829. — Conventional  View  of  Joints  at  C 
(Fig.  824). 

Fig.  830.— Conventional  View  of  Joints  at  D  (Fig, 
824). 


11 


ARCH  CENTERINGS. 


Setting  Out  for  Segrnental  Arches. 

The  wooden  centerings  or  centres  used 
for  supporting  brick  or  stone  arches  until 
the  construction  is  complete,  or  until  the 
mortar  or  cement  is  dry,  are  made  by  car- 
penters, who  find  it  necessary  to  be  able  to 
set  out  the  particular  curve  required  before 
starting  the  actual  construction  of  the  wood- 
work. The  curves  for  constructing  the 
centres  or  turning-pieces,  or  for  setting  out 


1                      \  / 

Ic  ^""V^i 

A 

K 

n 

B 

Fig.  832.— Drawing  Curves  of  Arch  from  a  Centre. 

the  voussoirs  or  members  of  segmental  and 
cambered  arches,  can  be  obtained  by  several 
different  methods.  The  practice,  generally, 
among  engineers,  architects,  and  surveyors 
is  merely  to  indicate  the  width  of  the  open- 
ing to  be  spanned,  and  the  height  or  rise 
above  the  level  line  of  the  springing  at  the 
abutments,  and  so  long  as  the  completed 
work  is  in  conformity  with  such  instructions 
the  artisan  is  allowed  to  produce  it  by  the 
method  he  is  best  acquainted  with.  Fig. 
832  shows  a  segmental  arch  extending  about 
f  of  a  semicircle,  and  on  the  left-hand  side 
of  the  fgure  is  indicated  a  very  common 
method  of  producing  it.    The  chord  of  half 


the  arc  is  drawn,  and  the  centre  of  it 
measured  off.  The  square  is  then  applied 
to  the  chord,  as  shown,  and  by  means  of  a 
straightedge  a  line  is  drawn  at  right  angles 
to  the  chord,  bisecting  it  at  its  centre,  and 
intersecting  the  perpendicular  line  at  k, 
which  is  the  centre  of  the  curve  required. 
This  method,  while  correct  in  theory,  is  un- 
scientific in  practice,  being  too  dependent 
on  crude  mechanical  aids,  and  is  not  credit- 
able to  an  intelligent  craftsman.  On  the 
right-hand  side  of  Fig.  832  a  better  and 
more  expeditious  method  is  shown,  as  fol- 
lows : — First  draw  the  line  A  b,  and  mark 
off  the  span  ;  then  with  a  and  B  as  centres 
mark  off  equal  distances  at  E  and  f.  With 
E  and  F  as  centres  and  with  any  radius 
greater  than  half  the  distance  between  them, 
draw  the  intersecting  arcs  G  and  h  ;  through 
the  points  of  intersection  draw  the  lines  c  d. 
Mark  ofi  at  c  the  rise  above  the  line  a  b, 
and,  with  c  and  B  as  centres,  draw  intersect- 
ing arcs  ;  a  line  drawn  through  the  points 
of  intersection  will  bisect  equally  the  line 
B  c  at  J,  and  being  continued  will  intersect 
the  line  c  d  at  k,  which  is  the  centre  re- 
quired. A  light  deal  rod  and  a  fine  bradawl 
for  a  pivot  centre  will  make  an  excellent 
compass  for  this  purpose,  and  is  called  a 
radius  rod. 

Formula  for  Arch  Curves. — For  various 
reasons,  such  as  the  absence  of  anything 
upon  which  it  can  be  worked  out,  and  the 
small  round-up  of  the  curve,  it  is  not  always 
convenient  to  adopt  the  method  just  de- 
scribed, and  in  cases  of  this  kind  the  mathe- 
matical formula 

^.  \  span  X  \  span 

Diameter   -. — =   -f  rise 

rise 

is  extremely  useful. 


ARCH  CENTERINGS. 


251 


Obtaining  Radius  of  Segment  of  Circle. — 

To  get  the  radius  of  any  segment  of  a  circle, 
the  following  rule  should  be  committed  to 
memory  : — Given  the  span  or  chord  line, 
and  versed  sine  (rise),  square  half  the  chord, 
divide  by  the  rise,  and  to  the  quotient  add 
the  rise.  This  gives  the  diameter  ;  divide 
by  2  for  radius.  Referring  to  Fig.  832  .as  an 
example,  half  chord  =  2  ft.  11  in.  =  35  x 
35  =  1225  7  =  175  +  7  =  182  2  = 
91  in.  =  7  ft.  7  in.  radius. 


in  Fig.  833,  and  these  divisions  may  be  sub- 
divided as  indicated.  The  object  of  bi- 
secting the  arcs  is  to  get  the  lines  radial. 

Setting  Out  Curves  for  Large  Arches 
of  Moderate  Rise. 

Arches  of  large  span  and  moderate  rise 
cannot  conveniently  be  struck  out  from 
a  centre,  owing  to  the  length  of  the  radius, 
neither  can  small  arches  that  have  but 
very  Uttle  rise.    Fig.  834  shows  a  method 


Fig.  835. 


Fig.  833. — Marking  out  Voussoirs  without  the  aid 
of  a  Centre. 


Fig.  834. — Drawing  Curves  of  Arch  without  a  Centre  by  means  of  a  Frame. 
Fig.  835. — Enlarged  View  of  Apex  of  Frame  shown  in  Fig.  834. 
Fig.  836. — Alternative  Frame  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  834. 


Setting  Out  Curves  with  Radius  Rod. 

Centres  for  segmental  arches  of  larger 
dimensions,  and  others  of  irregular  propor- 
tions, should  be  struck  out  with  a  radius  rod. 
After  finding  the  radius  by  calculation, 
measure  ofi  the  distance  on  the  radius  rod, 
and  beyond  this  mark  off  the  depth  of  the 
face  of  the  arch.  Insert  the  bradawl  in 
these  points,  and  draw  the  curves  ;  cut  off 
a  portion  of  the  inner  curve  so  that  its 
chord  is  equal  to  the  span,  and  draw  the 
voussoirs  or  members.  This  may  be  done 
by  dividing  out  either  the  inner  or  the  outer 
curve,  and  bisecting  the  divisions  as  shown 


of  drawing  the  curves  without  the  aid  of  a 
centre.  For  the  purpose  of  elucidation  the 
figure  necessarily  shows  considerable  round- 
up. The  span  is  marked  off  on  line  c  T)  ; 
the  centre  line  a  b  is  drawn  at  right  angles 
to  it,  and  the  rise  is  marked  off  at  a.  Two 
French  nails  are  driven  in  at  c  and  d,  and  a 
triangular  frame  is  made  as  shown,  using  deal 
battens  about  1  in.  thick  for  a  very  large 
arch  ;  for  an  arch  of  moderate  size  slate 
battens  will  do  ;  the  legs  touch  the  nails 
c  D,  and  at  the  apex  at  the  point  of  the  rise 
a  small  notch  is  made  to  accommodate  the 
pencil  as  shown  at  a  in  Fig.  835.  The  pencil 
being  in  position  at  a,  the  frame  is  moved 


252 


CAKPENTEY  AND  JOINERY. 


round  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines,  care 
being  taken  that  it  is  always  in  contact  with 
the  nails  at  c  and  d,  and  a  true  segment  of  a 
circle  is  then  struck  (EucHd,  bk.  iii.  prop.  21). 
The  frame  must  be  altered,  and  the  nails 
shifted  to  e  and  f  to  draw  the  outer  curve. 
The  voussoirs  or  members  can  be  set  out  as 
already  explained  (see  Fig.  833).  Fig.  836 
is  a  much  better  appliance,  and  is  arranged 
to  suit  the  arch  shown  in  Fig.  834  ;  it  is  not 
so  clumsy  to  work,  and  it  requires  a  third 
nail  at  D  ;  it  is  used  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  board  shown  in  Figs.  837  and  838,  and 
is  identical  with  it. 


Fig.  837. 


rise  ;  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  board  a  line 
is  then  drawn  from  point  a  until  it  inter- 
sects with  the  line  of  abutment  at  c,  and 


Fig.  839. — Camber  or  Straight  Arch. 

the  triangular  piece  from  c  b  is  removed. 
Three  nails  are  inserted  at  b,  c,  and  d  (Fig. 
837)^  and  the  board  (known  as  a  camber 


Setting  Out  Curve  for  Camber  Arch. 

Fig.  837  is  an  example  of  a  camber  arch 
whose  members  do  not  radiate  from  the 
centre  of  curvature,  but  from  some  point 
within  it.  The  centre  lying  at  some  con- 
siderable distance,  the  members,  if  radiat- 
ing from  it,  would  be  so  nearly  parallel  that 
they  would  offer  no  key.  In  Fig.  837  it  is 
presumed  that  the  rise  is  less  than  plank 
width,  namely,  11  in.  At  the  centre  of  a 
board  (Fig.  838)  rather  longer  than  the  span 
required,  a  hne  a  b  is  squared  equal  to  the 


slip)  is  moved  round  (the  pencil  being  held 
in  contact  with  it  at  point  e),  as  shown  in 
the  dotted  lines.  As  in  the  former  case,  the 
board  must  be  altered  and  the  nails  shifted 
in  order  to  draw  the  outer  curve  f,  g,  h. 
The  camber  slip  is  based  on  the  principle 
that  all  angles  in  a  segment  of  a  circle  are 
equal  to  one  another  ;  so  by  having  a  long 
and  wide  slip  tapering  both  ends,  the 
middle  pin  marking  the  rise  could  be  dis- 
pensed with  ;  but  such  a  slip  is  unwieldy,  as 
only  half  its  length  is  of  use  in  marking  a 
centre. 


ARCH  CENTERINGS. 


253 


So=caHed  Straight  Arch. 

Fig.  839  is  an  illustration  of  a  so-called 
straight  arch  whose  intrados  is  really  cam- 
ber ;    properly    speaking,    not    less  than 


I     2     s     4.    5    c   F 


^■ 

4 
3 
2 

B 

G 

H 

D 


Fig.  840.— Method  of  Setting  Out  Ellipse  by- 
Intersecting  Lines. 

I  in.  per  foot  of  span.  The  method  last 
described  is  about  the  only  way  in  which 
this  arch  can  be  expeditiously  set  out. 

Setting-  Out  Curves  for  Elliptical 
Arches. 

Commonly,  an  "  elhpse  "  is  set  out  from 
three  centres  with,  compasses,  but  a  three- 


G 


E  / 

c 

1 

F 

D 


H 

Fig.   841.— Method  of  Setting  Out  Ellipse  with 
Trammel. 

centred  arch  is  not  an  elliptical  arch — it  is 
only  an  approximation.  The  true  ellipse 
is  obtained  from  an  oblique  section  of  a 
cone  or  cylinder,  and  no  portion  of  its  curve 
is  part  of  a  circle  ;  therefore  an  ellipse  can- 
not be  drawn  by  compasses  or  from  centres. 
The  following  methods  are  for  describing  and 

i 


setting  out  true  elliptic  and  oval  arches. 
The  first  method,  illustrated  at  Fig.  840,  is 
almost  universally  used  by  mechanics,  as 
it  is  easily  drawn,  and  can  be  adapted  to 
arches  of  any  size.  It  has  also  the  advan- 
tage that  no  centres  are  required,  the  inter- 
section of  the  lines  giving  the  points  through 


Fig.  842. — General  View  of  Trammel  and  Cross 
for  Setting  Out  Elliptical  Arches. 

which  the  curve  passes.  The  transverse  or 
major  axis  a  b,  and  the  conjugate  or  minor 
axis  c  D,  being  given,  enclose  the  space  by 
the  parallelogram  e  f  g  H.  Divide  the  Hues 
A  E,  E  c,  each  into  any  number  of  equal  parts 
(in  this  case  six),  draw  the  lines  1  1,  2  2,  3  3, 
4  4,  and  5  5,  and  the  intersection  of  the  lines 


Fig.  843. — Enlarged  Detail  of  End  of  Trammel  and 
Rod  for  Setting  Out  Elliptical  Arches. 

will  give  the  points  in  the  curve  for  one 
quarter  of  the  figure.  Repeat  the  operation 
for  the  other  three  quarters,  then  bend  a  thin 
flexible  rod  round  the  points  obtained,  and 
draw  the  curve.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  granite  arches  of  50-ft.  span  cross- 
ing the  roadway  at  the  Tower  Bridge  were  set 
out  by  this  method.  Although  it  does  not 
form  a  perfectly  true  elHpse,  an  arch  set  out 
in  this  manner  is  by  no  means  unpleasing. 


254 


CAKPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Another  Method. — The  second  method  of 
setting  out  an  eUipse,  illustrated  by  Fig. 
841,  is  probably  the  best  yet  devised  ;  it  is 


LAGGING.  3x2 


(g^l  BOLTS 


WEDiGEa 


Fig.  846.— View  of  Joint  at  C  (Fig.  844),  also 
shewing  Method,  of  supporting  Wedges,  etc. 

done^  by  means  of  a  trammel,  which  gives 
a  curve  by  one  continuous  motion.  The 
trammel  consists  of  a  wooden  cross  a  b  c  d, 
each  arm  of  which  is  slotted  or  grooved. 
In  thest  grooves  two  small  hardwood  sHding 
bars  are  carefully  fitted,  so  that  they  can 
be  moved  smoothly  to  and  fro.  A  rod,  1,  2, 
3,  provided  with  three  adjustable  trammel 


Fig.  845.— View  of  Joint 
at  A  (Fig.  844). 


heads,  is  now  placed  in  position  as  shown  in 
the  diagram.  This  position  is  obtained  by 
making  the  distance  from  2  to  1  equal  to 
half  the  shortest  diameter  of  the  ellipse 
G  H,  and  the  distance  from  1  to  3  equal  to 
half  the  longest  diameter  e  f.    The  points 


Fig.  847.— Detail  of  Joint  at  B  (Fig.  844). 

of  the  heads  are  inserted  into  the  centres  of 
the  sliding  bars  at  2  and  3,  and  by  moving 
the  rod  round  (the  outside  head  having  a 
pencil  fitted  in  it)  the  ellipse  is  described 
by  one  continuous  line.  Fig.  842  shows  the 
trammel  in  position,  while  Fig.  843  shows 
an  enlarged  detail  of  one  end  of  the  bar. 
The  frame  of  the  trammel  is  usually  made 
of  mahogany  or  some  other  hard  wood,  and 
the  shding  bars  are  of  ebony.  The  heads 
are  similar  to  those  used  for  beam  com- 


ARCH  CENTERINGS. 


255 


passes,  and  are  adjuster]  by  a  screw  pressing 
against  the  radius  rod  on  which  they  slide. 


Ot)T  OF  11x3 


Fig.  848.— Detail  of  Ribs,  and  Joints  at  D  and  E  (Fig.  844). 


The  frame  of  the  trammel  is  held  together 
by  a  small  wood  screw  at  each  corner.  Its 
size  depends,  of  course,  upon  the  size  of 
the  eUipse  to  be  described,  but  one  frame 
will  describe  ellipses  of  various  diameters. 


Fig.  849.— Eleva- 
tion of  Four-ring 
Arch  and  Centre. 


Centerings  for  Semicircular  Arches. 

Centres  for  semicircular  stone  arches, 
having  generally  to  bear  a  large  amount  of 
weight,  are  usually  built  up  of  plank  and 
batten  scantlings,  which  are  roughly  framed 


Fig.  850. 
Section 
through 
Centre. 


256 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


together,  and  fixed  with  bolts  and  dog  irons, 
as  indicated  in  the  sketches.  Fig.  844  shows 
a  centre  braced  so  that  it  is  only  necessary 
to  be  supported  at  each  end,  leaving  a  free 


wedges  are  used  for  raising  or  lowering  the 
centre  slightly,  so  as  to  adjust  it  to  its  exact 
position  previous  to  building  the  arch  ;  and, 
secondly,  when  the  arch  is  finished,  to  ease 


Fig.  851.— Centre  for  Segmental  Arch, 


Fig.  853. 


Isometric  View  of  Centre  at  Springing 
showing  Support  Wedges,  etc. 


Fig.  852. — Section  through  Figs.  851  and  854. 


the  centre  from  the  intrados  by  gradually 
slackening  the  wedges.  They  also  allow  of 
the  centre  being  taken  down  without  undue 


Fig.  854. — Centre  for  an  Elliptical  Arch. 


passage  underneath.  The  joints  used  are 
shown  by  Figs.  845  to  848.  Wedges  are 
placed  in  pairs  directly  between  the  top  of 
the  supports  and  the  bottom  of  the  centre, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  846.    In  the  first  place,  the 


vibration,  which  would  be  otherwise  caused. 
Fig.  849  is  the  part  elevation  of  a  four-ring 
brick  arch  with  centering,  the  struts  of  the 
latter  finishing  against  the  ribs  as  shown  io 
the  vertical  section  (Fig.  850). 


ARCH  CENTERINGS. 


257 


Centering's  for  Segmental  Arches. 

Fig.  851  is  the  elevation  of  a  rough  centre 
for  a  segmental  arch  8  ft.  wide,  2  ft.  6  in. 
rise,  and  12  in.  soffit.  Fig.  852  is  the  section 
through  this  centre  and  also  the  elliptic 
one  shown  later  (see  Fig.  85^).  Fig.  855 
is  an  isometric  view,  showing  wedges  under 
end  of  centre.    Close  lagging  is  shown,  but 


Centering  for  Elliptical  Window. 

An  eUiptical  window  in  brickwork  may 
be  built  up  round  a  centering  of  the  kind 
shown  in  the  half  internal  elevation  (Fig.  855) 
and  in  the  conventional  view  (Fig.  856). 
The  centering  is  supported  by  the  struts  a, 
but  sometimes,  instead  of  these,  a  part  ring 
of  bricks,  laid  dry,  is  used,  the  bricks  resting 


frequently  it  would  be  formed  so  that  there 
would  be  a  space  between  each  two  strips 
of  wood  lagging. 

Centerings  for  Elliptical  Arch. 

The  centering  shown  by  Fig.  854  is  to 
fulfil  the  conditions  laid  down  for  the  seg- 
mental arch  which  has  been  described  in  the 
previous  paragraph,  and  the  construction  of 
the  centering  is  similar. 


on  the  inverted  ring  supporting  the  wedges 
and  centering. 

Centre  for  Circle  =  on  =  Circle  Arch  with 
Parallel  Jambs  and  Reveals. 

Figs.  857  and  858  are  elevation  and  plan 
of  a  circle-on-circle  window  or  door  opening 
in  which  jambs  or  reveals  are  parallel  and 
the  whole  of  the  soffit  of  the  arch  is.  cylin- 
drical.   The  elevation  of  the  centre  is  given 


258 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


at  Fig.  859,  tke  plan  of  the  ribs  at  a,  the  the  ribs  and  soffit  as  indicated  at  A  and  b 
plan  of  the  laggings  at  b  (Fig.  860),  and  the  (Fig.  860).  In  Fig.  859  the  Hne  of  ribs  is 
development  of  the  soffit  at  c.    The  shapes     shown  on  the  left,  whilst  the  line  of  laggings 


Fig.  857. — Elevation  of  Circle-on-Circle  Opening,  with  Soffit  parallel  at  the  Springing  and 

level  at  the^Crown. 


Fig.  858.— Plan  of  Soffit  (Fig.  857). 


of  the  inner  and  outer  ribs  are  identical,  is  shown  at  the  right.    In  the  elevation, 

How  to  obtain  their  shapes  will  now  be  ex-  divide  the  arc  into  an  equal  number  of  parts, 

plained.    First  draw  the  elevation  of  the  as  a\  b',  etc.,  draw  ordinates  to  the  springing 

centre  as  shown  in  Fig.  859,  and  the  plans  of  line,  and  project  down  to  the  plan  of  the 


ARCH  CENTERINGS. 


259 


ribs,  as  «,  h,  c,  d,  e,  and  1.  At  right  angles  to 
the  plan  of  the  ribs,  draw  the  ordinates, 
making  them  of  the  same  lengths  as  those  in 
the  elevation  ;  thus  a  series  of  points  is 
obtained,  as  c''  to  1'',  through  which  the 
curve  for  the  ribs  is  drawn.  To  obtain  the 
soffit  mould,  divide  the  Une  of  laggings  into 
equal  parts  as  o'  to  1',  and  project  down  to 
the  plan.  Through  point  o  in  the  plan, 
draw  the  horizontal  line  o  to  1''  and  mark 


Centre  for  Circle  =  on  =  Circle  Arch  with 
Radial  Jambs  or  Reveals. 

Figs.  861  and  862  show  the  elevation  and 
plan  of  a  circle-on-circle  window  or  door 
opening  with  radial  jambs  or  reveals.  Fig. 
863  gives  the  elevation  of  the  front  and  back 
of  the  centre,  at  the  left  and  right  respec- 
tively. The  face  moulds  for  the  ribs  are 
obtained  in  exactly  similar  manner  to  those 


Fig.  859.— Elevation  of  Centre 
for  Opening  (Fig.  857). 


off  distances  on  it  equal  to  the  divisions  o', 
6',  5',  etc.,  in  elevation.  From  these  points 
draw  lines  at  right  angles  to  o  V\  and' pro- 
ject from  the  corresponding  points  in  the 
plan.  Through  the  points  thus  obtained  the 
development  of  the  soffit  may  be  drawn. 
After  the  ribs  are  sawn  out,  the  edge  should 
be  planed  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  level  at  the 
top,  but  gradually  bevels  until  at  the  spring- 
ing it  is  at  the  angle  shown  in  the  plan. 
The  construction  of  the  centre  is  clearly 
shown  in  the  illustrations. 


Fig.  860.— Plan  of  Centre,  and  Geometrical 
Setting  Out  for  Fig.  857. 

in  the  case  illustrated  by  Figs.  859  and  860. 
For  the  development  of  the  soffit  mould,  a 
separate  drawing  must  be  made  as  shown  at 
Fig.  865.  Set  out  the  elevation  and  plan  of 
soffit  and  radial  lines  meeting  at  any  con- 
venient point  a',  divide  the  elevation  into  a 
number  of  equal  parts  as  shown  from  1  to 
8  (a),  and  project  these  points  dovm  to  the 
plan,  giving  corresponding  numbered  points. 
From  these  last  points  draw  Hues  radiating 
to  a\  these  being  plans  of  generators  of  the 
conoidal  surfaces  which  are  shown  by  the 
conventional  view  (Fig.  866).  Projectors 
have  not  been  drawn  for  the  right-hand  half 
of  the  plan,  as  this  is  exactly  the  same  as  the 
left-hand  half.  From  points  1  to  7  in  the 
elevation  draw  the  elevation  of  the  generators 


260 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINEEY. 


meeting  the  line  a  8  in  points  as  shown  ;  at  development  of  the  front  edge,  set  a  pair  of 
right  angles  to  V  a'  draw  a'  8'  (c).   Mark  off     compasses  to  one  of  the  equal  distances  of 


Fig.  861. — Elevation  of  Circle-on-Circle  Opening,  with  Soffit  converging  at  the  Springing 

and  level  at  the  Crown. 


Fig.  862.— Plan  of  Soffit  (Fig.  861). 


distances  on  it  exactly  equal  to  those  on  the  elevation,  and  another  pair  or  a  radius 

8  a  (a),  which  give  the  points  where  the  rod  to  the  length  of  the  generators.  (Note, 

generators  start  from.    This  will  be  under-  these  are  all  one  length.)  Then  using  point  1 

stood  by  reference  to  Fig.  866.    For  the  (b)  as  centre,  describe  an  arc  with  the  com- 


ARCH  CENTERINGS. 


261 


passes  ;  then  with  6  as  centre  in  a'  8'  (c)  is  the  point  2  (c).  Each  of  the  other  points 
draw  an  arc  with  a  radius  equal  to  the  in  the  development  is  obtained  in  precisely 
generators  ;  where  these  two  arcs  intersect     the  same  manner,  and  the  curve  can  be 


N.- 


262 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


drawn  in  as  shown.  For  most  practical  In  a  segmental-on-plan  centre,  supports 
purposes  half  would  be  sufficient,  but  the  must  be  given  by  sturts  fixed  at  an  angle 
whole  has  been  shown.    The  method  of     of  45°  from  the  vertical  side  posts. 


Fig.  865. — Setting  Out  for  Development  for 
Sof&t  of  Arch. 


866, — Conventional  View 
of  Conoidal  Surface  formed 
by  Soffit  of  Arch. 


building  up  the  centre  with  the  ribs  in  two 
thicknesses  is  fully  shown  at  Figs.  863,  864, 
and  867.  And  the  last-named  figure  also 
shows  the  general  construction  of  the  centre, 
its  support,  with  wedges,  etc.  A  central 
support  is  not  shown,  but  if  by  any  means 
this  can  be  arranged  for  it  will  be  found 
advantageous. 


Centre  for  Opening-  with  Converging 
Outer  Reveals  and  Parallel  Inner 
Reveals. 

At  Figs.  868  and  869  are  shown  in  elevation 
and  plan  the  necessary  centering  for  an 
opening  with  converging  outer  reveals  and 
parallel   (cyhndrical)   inner   reveals.  The 


ARCH  CENTERINGS. 


263 


true  geometrical  working  for  obtaining  the 
shape  of  the  ribs  and  the  development  of 
half  the  inner  sofiit  is  shown,  but  not  for  the 


Fig.  869. 

soffit  with  the  converging  reveals  ;  but  the 
careful  reader  will  have  Httle  difficulty  if  he 
note  that  this  case  is  a  combination  of  the 
two  previous  ones  (Figs.  859  to  867),  which 


Fig.  868.— Elevation  of  Centering  for  an  Openin 
with  External  Reveals  converging,  the 
Internal  Reveals  being  parallel. 
Fig.  869.    Plan  of  Centering,  Setting  Out  for 
Ribs,  etc. 

have  been  so  fully  described.  Figs.  870  and 
871,  which  represent  respectively  a  con- 
ventional view  of  a  centre  for  converging 
jambs,  and  a  general  view  of  inner  centres 
for  parallel  reveals,  will  convey  a  clear 
idea  of  the  method  of  constructing  these 
centres  when  they  are  for  a  span  of  an 
ordinary  sized  opening.  Fig.  877  shows 
how  a  block  may  be  cut  to  connect  the 


264 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


heads  of  the  ribs,  as  at  a  (Fig.  876)  ;  and 
the  centre  may  be  further  strengthened  by 
fixing  in  a  tie,  and  bracing  as  indicated  by 
the  dotted  lines.  The  close  lagging  shown  is 
most  suitable  for  brickwork,  but  in  the  case 


Centering  for  a  Gothic  =  on  =  Circle 
Arch. 

The  elevation  and  plan  of  the  soffit  of  an 
arch  of  this  description  is  shown  at  Figs. 


Fig. ^872. —Elevation  of  Gothic-on-Circle  Arch. 


Fig.  873.— Plan  of  Soffit  (Fig.  872). 


of  a  stone  arch  the  ,  laggings  are  usually  of  a 
stouter  character,  and  put  at  intervals  of 
2  in.  or  more  apart,  so  as  to  support  the 
stonework  and  tie  the  ribs  together. 


872  and  873.  The  soffit  of  the  arch  at  the 
springing  converges,  but  finishes  in  a  level 
hne.  Details  of  the  geometrical  setting 
out  of  the  ribs  and  general  construction  are 


ARCH  CENTERINGS.  265 

illustrated  by  Figs.  874  to  877.  The  geo-  shape  of  the  ribs  would  involve  the  same 
metrical   construction    for   obtaining   the     principles  and  method  of  working  as  given 


Fig.  874. 


Fig.  875. 


874.— Half  Outside  and  Half  Inside 
Elevation  of  Centre  for  Arch 
.(Fig.  872). 

875. — Plan  of  Centering  and  Setting  Out 
for  Ribs. 


in  the  case  of  the  centering  for  the  arch  shown 
in  elevation  and  plan  by  Eigs.  861  and  862. 
The  development  of  the  soffit  mould  would 
be  similar.  In  turning  a  stone  arch  over 
the  rib  forming  the  centre  it  is  sometimes 
found  that  the  stonework  is  untrue.  In 
such  a  case,  the  obvious  remedy  is  to  pack 
with  slightly  tapered  wedges. 


12 


266 


CxlRPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Centering  for  a  Stone  Arch  and 
Brick  Back  Arch. 

Figs.  878  and  879  show  the  arrangement 
of  centering  often  used  when  the  front  of  an 
arch  is  of  stone  and  the  backing  is  of  brick 


Centre  for  Gothic  Arch  to  the  Arcade 
of  a  Church. 

An  example  of  centering  of  this  description 
is  illustrated  by  Figs.  880  to  885.  It  will  be 
seen  that  in  this  example,  where  the  mould- 


with  a  4J-in.  reveal.  The  centre  for  the 
brickwork  is  larger  to  allow  of  the  4J-in. 
reveal  with  lagging  as  shown,  whereas  a  rib 
centre  built  up  of  two  thicknesses  as  shown 
is  sufficient  to  support  the  voussoir  if  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  stones  falls  within 
the  ribs.  When  this  is  not  the  case  another 
rib  would  have  to  be  made  large  enough  to 
be  in  contact  with  some  member  of  the 
moulding.  In  the  case  that  is  here  shown 
th'^.  rib  might  be  adjusted  against  the  flat 
part  of  the  hollow  a  or  against  the  square  b. 
The  two  parts  of  the  centre  are  connected 
together  by  nailmg  on  blocks  as  shown  at 
c,  D,  and  E  (Fig.  879).  The  block  shown  at 
F  is  nearly  behind  the  head  and  top  of  the 
standards  in  the  same  plane,  and  thus  they 
can  be  more  easily  braced. 


ings  of  the  arch  are  for  the  most  part  in 
chamfered  planes,  the  ordinary  centre  with 
lagging  would  be  unsuitable,  as  it  would 
only  give  direct  support  to  the  centre  mould- 
ing or  surface  forming  the  soffit  of  the  arch. 
As  these  arches  are  usually  built  in  at  least 


Fig.  877. — Block  for  fixing  between  Head  of 
Ribs  as  shown  at  A  (Fig.  876). 

two  rings  of  courses,  the  centre  would  not 
directly  touch  the  second  ring,  therefore  the 
centres  have  to  be  constructed  so  as  to  give 
direct  support  to  each  ring.    This  is  gener- 


ARCH  CENTERINGS. 


267 


Fig.  878. — Half  Elevation  showing  Centering  to  a  Stone  Arch;  also  Half  Elevation  of  Centering 

to  Internal  Brick  Arch. 


ally  done  by  supporting  each  ring  upon  one 
or  more  ribs,  the  case  here  dealt  with  being 
so  treated.  By  reference  to  the  half- sec- 
tional elevation  (Fig.  880)  and  the  transverse 


section  (Fig.  882)  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
middle  centre  b  is  smaller.  It  is  formed  of 
two  ribs,  and  gives  support  to  the  stones 
forming  the  soffit  of  the  first  ring  of  the  arch. 


270 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


The  two  outer  ribs  shown  at  a  (Figs.  880  to 
882)  are  larger  so  as  to  support  the  series  of 
siiones  forming  the  second  ring.  The  con- 
ventional view  (Fig.  883),  showing  part  of  the 
ribs,  the  wedges,  and  the  method  of  support- 
ing, will  make  the  construction  clear.  Each 
rib  is  built  up  of  two  thicknesses  of  11 -in. 


Centering  for  Barrel  Vaulting:. 

The  isometrical  view  (Fig.  886)  will  convey 
a  general  idea  of  the  centering  and  timbering 
required  in  the  construction  of  four  semi- 
circular barrel  vaults,  which  intersect  at 
right  angles  in  groins  as  shown.    To  give  a 


Fig.  887.— Elevation  of  Cross 
Rib  for  Vaulting. 


Fig.  888. — Plan  of  Centering  at  Intersection  of  Vaults  :   C,  Plan  of  Intermediate  Principal, 
or  Rib.     D,  Elevation  of  Same.     E,  True  Form  of  Half  Diagonal  Principal.      F,  Develop- 
ment of  Lagging. 


boards  from  1  in.  to  IJ  in.  thick,  according 
to  the  weight  to  be  supported,  nailed  to- 
gether in  the  usual  manner.  The  struts 
may  also  be  of  board  stuff,  or  i-in.  by  3-in. 
to  6-in.  by  3-in.  scantling  may  be  used  and 
shouldered  to  the  ribs  as  shown  by  Figs.  884 
and  885.  The  ribs  should  be  braced  together 
as  indicated  in  the  elevations  and  section. 


better  view  of  the  centering  connected  with 
the  groining  of  the  vaults,  the  ribs  a  and  b 
(Fig.  886)  have  been  purposely  shown  farther 
apart  than  they  should  be  in  reality,  and 
consequently  the  standards  would  be  placed 
much  nearer  together  than  shown.  All 
main  members  have  been  shown  where  prac- 
ticable, but  for  clearness  some  of  the  minor 


ARCH  CENTERINGS. 


271 


timbers,  such  as  braces,  have  been  omitted. 
For  a  similar  reason  the  walls  nearest  to 
the  spectator  have  not  been  shown  above 
the  ground  level.    The  strength  of  the  ribs 
and  of  the  supporting  timbers  would  be 
varied  according  to  the  material  they  would 
have  to  support.    Generally,  in  the  case  of 
stonework,   the  weight  to  be  supported 
would  be  much  greater  than  in  the  case  of 
brickwork,  therefore  all  members  of  the 
timbers  should  be  proportionately  increased. 
The  laggings  at  the  intersection  of  the 
vaults  would  be  supported  principally  by 
ribs  across  the  diagonals  as  shown  in  the 
conventional  ^^ew  (Fig.  886),  and  in  the 
plan  (Fig.  888).    One  principal  would  be 
framed  up  of  several  thicknesses  so  as  to 
span  one  of  the  diagonals  ;  this  should  be 
well  supported  by  a  head,  standards,  braces, 
and  sill.    The  other  diagonal  would  be 
spanned  by  two  half-principals  ;  these  would 
be  fixed  to  the  main  principal  by  straps  and 
bolts,  and  supported  by  a  head,  standards, 
etc.    It  will  be  noticed  that  these  principal 
ribs  are  represented  as  being  backed  ;  that 
is,  the  edge  of  half  the  thickness  of  each 
principal  rib  is  bevelled  to  keep  it  in  the 
same  cylindrical  surface  as  the  lagging  it 
will  have  to  support,  so  as  to  aflord  a  firm 
bearing  to  the  latter.    As  the  space  from 
one  of  the  ordinary  ribs  (shown  in  plan  at 
A,  Fig.  888)  to  the  intersection  at  b  would 
be  too  great  for  the  laggings,  part  prin- 
cipals would  be  constructed  and  fixed  to 
those  spanning  the  diagonals  as  indicated 
in  plan  at  c.    An  elevation  of  one  of  these  is 
projected  at  d.    A  half -elevation  of  one  of 
the  diagonal  principals  is  shown  at  e.  Also 
development  of  portion  of  the  lagging  is 
shown  at  f.    The  methods  of  setting  out 
the  curves  for  the  diagonal  principals  is 
shown  separately  at  Fig.  889,  and  that  for 
the  development  of  the  laggings  at  Fig.  890. 
At  G  half  the  transverse  section,  from  the 
springing  to  the  crown  of  the  vault,  is  shown 
from  7  to  0.    To  set  this  out,  mark  off  the 
thickness  of  the  lagging  and  draw  in  the 
quadrant  as  shown  from  a'  to  V  ;  then,  at 
any  convenient  position  below,  draw  lines 
9,  11,  and  9,  10  ;  the  former  represents  the 
plan  of  the  line  of  transverse  section  of  the 
vault  and  the  latter  the  plan  of  the  line  of 
intersection   of   two    vaults.    Divide  the 


quadrant  a'  to  h'  into  any  number  of  equal 
parts,  and  from  these  draw  ordinates  at 
right  angles  to  7,  8.  Project  each  of  these 
down  to  the  plan  of  the  diagonal  9,  10.  At 
right  angles  to  this  line  set  up  ordinates  as 
shown  at  h,  the  length  of  each  of  these 
being,  of  course,  equal  to  its  corresponding 
member  at  g.  Through  the  points  thus  ob- 
tained draw  the  curve.  It  will  be  clear  to  the 
reader  that  this  is  a  quadrant  of  an  ellipse, 
and  that  in  nearly  every  practical  case  it 
would  be  more  convenient  to  draw  in  the 


Fig.  890.  Fig.  889. 

Fig.  889. — Geometrical  Setting  Out  for  obtaining 
True  Form  of  Edge  of  Diagonal  Principal. 

Fig.  890. — Geometrical  Construction  for  obtaining 
Development  of  Curve  for  Intersection  of 
Laggings. 

curve  by  means  of  an  elliptic  trammel  or  other 
of  the  practical  methods  described  on  pp.  250 
to  252.  To  obtain  the  development  of  the 
laggings  on  a  level  with  7,  8  at  G,  draw  7,  8 
at  K  (Fig.  890)  ;  then  draw  in  the  quadrant 
7  to  0,  equal  to  7  to  0  at  G';  project  across 
from  points  0  to  7  at  g,  and  obtain  cor- 
responding points  on  the  quadrant  at  k. 
Produce  0,  8,  of  course  at  right  angles  to  8,  7, 
and  at  any  point  0  in  0,  7,  at  l,  draw  0  p  at 
right  angles.  Obtain  the  stretch  out  of  the 
quadrant  0,  7,  and  mark  it  of!  from  0  to  7 
at  L,  dividing  into  the  same  number  of  equal 
parts  as  the  quadrant.    Projecting  down 


272 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


from  these  points  in  the  quadrant,  and  from 
the  corresponding  numbered  points  in  the 
Une  0  7  at  l,  points  for  the  curve  are  ob- 
tained, and  this  may  be  drawn  in  as  shown, 
by  which  a  portion  of  the  lagging  is  obtained 


turning  movement.  In  the  case  of  vaulting 
spanning  a  greater  distance,  thicker  material 
would  be  necessary,  and  in  some  cases  it 
would  be  considered  necessary  to  frame  the 
principals  together  out  of  battens  and  deals 


Fig.  891. — Part  Elevation  of  Centering  and 
Supports. 

as  indicated  at  m.  The  construction  of  the 
ribs  or  principals  for  vaulting  differs  very 
much  according  to  the  magnitude  of  the  job. 


Fig.  892.— Part  Longitudinal  Section  through  A  B 
(Fig.  891),  showing  Bracing  connecting  Principals. 

3  in.  by  4  in.,  connecting  the  joints  together 
by  stub  tenons,  dogs  and  straps,  as  found 
most  serviceable. 


Fig.  893. — Conventional  View  showing  the  General  Arrangement  of  the  Main  Timbers. 


For  small  vaults  spanning  not  more  than 
8  ft.  or  9  ft.  they  would  be  made  of  1  J-in.  or 
IJ-in.  boarding,  nailed  together  in  two 
thicknesses  and  supported  on  standards 
6  in.  by  4  in.  or  6  in.  by  6  in.,  these  being 
properly  braced    so  as    to  prevent  any 


Centre  for  a  Segmental  Bridge, 
30= ft.  Span. 

The  accompanying  Figs.  891  to  897 
illustrate  the  construction  of  the  centre  for 
a  stone  and  brick  segmental  bridge  of  30 -ft. 


ARCH  CENTERINGS. 


273 


span  and  8-ft.  rise,  which  was  actually 
erected  over  a  shallow  river.  The  sizes  of 
the  different  members  are  given.  By  refer- 
ence to  the  conventional  view  (Fig.  893)  and 
details  (Figs.  894  to  897)  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  ribs  were  in  two  thicknesses,  out  of  9-in. 
by  2J-in.  These  were  connected  to  and  sup- 
ported by  struts,  bolted  on  each  side  and 
meeting  at  the  foot  of  the  king-post  as  shown. 


Fig.  897. — Details  of  Joints  at  F  and  G 
(Fig.  891). 


All  the  parts  of  each  principal  were  con- 
nected together  by  |-in.  bolts  and  nuts  with 
washers,  and  straps  at  the  foot  of  the  king- 
post. Packing  pieces  were  used  where 
necessary,  as  indicated  at  a  (Fig.  894)  and 
B  (Fig.  897).  The  principals  were  braced 
at  6-ft.  centres  as  indicated  at  Fig.  892. 

Design  for  Centre  for  an  Elliptical 
Stone  Arch  for  50  =  ft.  Span, 
supported  at  the  Ends. 

Fig.  898  shows  in  elevation  the  centering 
for  the  erection  of  a  stone  bridge  for  a  span 
12* 


of  from  50  ft.  to  GO  ft.,  in  which  it  is  desir- 
able for  the  centering  to  be  supported  at  each 
end  only  so  as  to  leave  as  much  space  as  pos- 
sible, such  as  would  be  required  to  allow  of 
navigation  in  the  case  of  a  bridge  over  water, 
or  over  a  thoroughfare  for  vehicular  traffic. 
Fig.  898  also  shows  part  of  the  elevation  of 
the  bridge.  The  conventional  view  (Fig. 
899)  shows  clearly  the  construction  of  each 


Fig.  895.— Detail  of  Foot  of  King-post,  etc.,  D 
(Fig.  891). 


Fig.  896.— Detail  of  Joints  at  E  (Fig.  891). 

principal,  and  also  the  means  of  support 
and  bracing.  It  should  be  noted  that  to 
avoid  confusion  in  this  view  the  bracing 
connecting  the  principals  is  not  shown.  The 
leading  dimensions  are  figured  on  the  draw- 
ings, which  clearly  show  the  construction, 
and  therefore  it  will  only  be  necessary  to 
refer  to  a  few  of  the  chief  points  in  the  center- 
ing. The  main  strut  a  is  connected  and 
strapped  to  the  king-post  at  its  head  ;  a 
piece  of  timber  b  is  bolted  to  it  by  1-in. 
bolts  as  indicated,  so  as  to  give  additional 
bearing.  The  ties  c  are  in  two  thicknesses, 
one  being  fixed  on  each  side  01  the  main  strut 


274  CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


ARCH  CENTERINGS. 


275 


276 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  902. — Enlarged  Details  of  Joints,  etc.,  at 
C,  D,  and  E  (Fig.  900). 


Fig.  901.— Longitudinal  Section  through  A  B 
(Fig.  900). 


ARCH  CENTERINGS. 


•277 


A  and  of  the  heel  piece  b  by  bolts.  By  refer- 
ence to  Fig.  899  it  will  be  seen  that  these  two 
thicknesses  are  gradually  brought  together 
so  that  they  become  equal  to  the  thickness 
of  the  king-post  to  which  they  are  connected 
and  strapped.  This  allows  an  uninterrupted 
horizontal  brace  to  run  through  on  each 
side  of  the  principal,  so  that  it  can  be  bolted 
to  each  member  which  it  crosses.  The  ends 
of  these  horizontal  braces  are  connected  by 
bolts  to  a  piece  of  scantling  cut  between  the 
struts  D  and  e.  When  the  arch  is  loaded, 
this  allows  these  braces  to  serve  as  struts. 
Two  pairs  of  wedges  are  shown  under  the  end 
of  each  principal,  their  purpose  being  to  give 
a  greater  bearing  surface,  to  obviate  any 
chance  of  the  wedges  being  crushed,  and 
also  to  facilitate  the  easing  or  striking  of 
the  principals. 

Design   for  Centre  sug^gested  by 
Tredgold. 

Figs.  900  to  904  are  the  elevation,  section, 
and  details  of  the  centering  for  an  elliptical 
stone  arch  as  designed  by  the  well-known 
authority,  Tredgold.  This  particular  con- 
struction may  be  used  for  any  span  from 
60  ft.  to  100  ft.,  and  the  centres  of  similar 
design,  modified  to  special  requirements, 
have  proved  successful.  In  Fig.  900  a  special 
form  of  wedging  for  adjusting  the  principals 
and  striking  them  is  shown  in  elevation  at 
H.  The  particular  shape  of  each  piece  will 
be  understood  by  reference  to  Fig.  904. 
The  pairs  of  wedges  k  are  for  insertion  in  the 
four  spaces  shown  at  h  (Fig.  900).  These 
wedges  are  used  for  adjusting  the  principals. 
When  it  is  desired  to  ease  the  principals,  to 
prevent  any  slipping  of  the  main  wedges, 
these  smaller  wedges  are  loosened,  and  the 
centre  wedge  is  struck  at  the  end  h.  Or, 
upon  the  centres  being  struck,  the  smaller 
wedges  would  be  taken  right  out  and  the 
I  centre  wedge  h  driven  back  to  its  full  ex- 
j  tent.  Sometimes  the  end  h  is  shod  with 
iron  to  prevent  splitting  whilst  being  driven. 

j  Centering  for  a  Segmental  Stone  Arch, 

70  =  ft.  Span,  resting  on  Five 
'  Supports. 

j  The  design  for  the  centering  for  a  segmental 
!  stone  arch  for  a  70-ft.  span  and  30-ft.  rise 


Fig.  903.— Enlarged  Details  of  Joints  at  F  and  G 
(Fig.  900). 


Fig.  904. — Enlarged  Detail  of  the  System  of 
Wedging  for  Striking  Centre  at  H 
(Fig.  900). 


are  permissible.  The  left-hand  half  shows  at  five  positions,  but  only  four  rows  of  piles 
how  the  timbering  would  be  arranged  if  sup-  or  standards  are  needed.  This  arrange- 
ported  on  five  rows  of  piles  or  standards.      ment  would  provide  for  a  space  of  about 


ARCH  CENTERINGS. 


279 


32  ft.  for  navigation  or  traffic.  The  left-hand 
half  shows  ordinary  pairs  of  wedges  for 
easing  and  striking,  whilst  on  the  right 
simple  forms  of  screw  jacks  are  shown.  The 
bodies  of  these  jacks  are  castings  fixed  on  the 
transom  beams,  the  heads  of  the  screws 
bearing  against  malleable  cast  plates  bolted 
to  the  under  edge  of  the  tie  beam.  An  en- 
larged detail  of  one  of  these  jacks  is  shown 
at  Fig.  907. 

Centering-  for  a  Tunnel. 

A  transverse  section  through  a  tunnel 
is  given  at  Fig.  908,  where  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  trusses  for  the  ribs  have  queen- 
posts  ;  this  principle  of  construction  gives 
great  strength,  and  is  in  general  favour  for 
this  class  of  work.  Alternative  designs  for 
trusses  are  given  at  a  and  b  ;  as  also  for 
the  supporting  timbering  at  d  and  e.  When 
a  section  of  the  arch  has  been  completed, 
arrangement  is  made  to  lower  the  centering 
a  little  from  the  soffit,  and  then  to  push 
the  centering  forward  and  raise  it  to  its 


280 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


proper  height  by  supporting  on  wedges. 
To  facilitate  the  pushing  forward  of  the 
centering,  a  method  which  was  used  many 
years  ago  in  France  is  sometimes  adopted, 
by  fixing  strong  axle  rollers  as  indicated  at 
F.  Thus  when  the  wedges  are  taken  out 
the  rollers  are  received  by  planks  as  shown, 
and  the  centering  is  easily  levered  forward. 

Centering  for  a  Skew  Arch  Bridge. 

The  elevation  of  a  bridge  with  a  skew  arch 
is  shown  by  Fig.  909,  where  it  will  be  noted 
that  the  face  of  the  arch  is  elliptical ;  but 
by  reference  to  Fig.  910  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  transverse  section  a  of  the  arch  is  a  semi- 
circle. At  Fig.  911  is  given  an  elevation 
of  one  elliptical  rib  and  the  plan  of  seven 
ribs.  Sometimes  the  ribs  for  skew  arches 
are  made  to  fit  the  transverse  section,  and 


placed  as  indicated  in  the  plan  (Fig.  912) ; 
but  it  will  be  seen  that  for  the  present  case 
(shown  by  a,  b,  c,  d)  this  arrangement  would 
be  unsuitable,  because  of  the  large  propor- 
tion of  some  of  the  ribs  at  each  end,  which 
is  not  required  to  support  the  arch ;  also  the 
thrust  of  the  masonry  at  the  loaded  ends 
would  necessitate  the  other  ends  being 
strongly  shored  to  prevent  movement. 
When  the  axis  of  the  arch  is  less  oblique  to 
the  face,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines 
E  F  and  G  H,  square  centering  is  permissible, 
and  often  an  advantage.     The  development 


ARCH  CENTERINGS. 


281 


of  the  soffit  of  the  arch  is  shown  at  b  (Fig. 
910),  the  line  a  d  being  equal  in  length  to  the 
semicircle  ab  c,  and  each  one  divided  into 
an  equal  number  of  parts,  giving  points  from 
which  generators  are  drawn  as  shown.  By 
projecting  from  where  the  plan  of  each 
generator  cuts  the  face  line  c  e  to  its  respec- 
tive position  in  the  development  b,  a  number 
of  points  of  intersection  are  obtained  through 
which  the  curve  of  the  front  edge  of  the 
soffit  can  be  drawn  as  shown  by  the  Hne 


of  the  voussoirs  of  the  arch,  as  indicated  at 
Fig.  918.  This  centre  is  supported  on  the 
same  timbering,  but  is  independent  of  the 
centering  for  the  soffit  of  the  dome.  The 
front  rib  of  the  centering  for  the  soffit  is 
built  up  of  two  thicknesses  of  IJ-in.  stuff, 
with  4-in.  by  2J-in.  stufi  for  struts.  The 
transverse  ribs  are  made  of  1-in.  stufi,  and 
constructed  as  indicated  at  Figs.  920  to  923. 
It  will  be  observed  that  these  ribs  have 
their  curved  edges  bevelled  so  as  to  fit  the 


efd;  g  h  and  k  are  obtained  in  a  similar 
manner.  The  coursing  joints  are  shown  on 
the  development,  and  from  this  they  have 
been  projected  to  the  plan,  and  from  the 
plan  to  the  elevation. 

Centerings  for  a  Larg:e  Elliptical 
Niche  or  Semi  =  Dome. 

Fig.  913  is  half  the  sectional  elevation 
of  an  elliptical  stone  niche  or  semi-dome 
on  line  a  b  (Fig.  9U).  It  is  24  ft. 
span,  rise  8  ft.  6  in.,  and  depth  8  ft.  6  in. 
The  centre  for  the  arch  in  the  front  of 
the  dome  is  formed  of  two  ribs,  upon 
which  lagging  pieces  are  fixed  ;  these  are 
sufficiently  long  to  give  support  to  the  soffit 


soffit.  The  amount  of  this  bevelHng,  and 
also  the  size  of  each  rib,  has  been  projected 
from  the  plan  (Fig.  916)  to  the  end  view 
(Fig.  917).  The  transverse  ribs  are  fixed  to 
the  front  rib  in  the  manner  clearly  shown 
at  Fig.  919.  The  whole  would  be  supported 
on  timber  staging  as  shown,  with  wedges 
inserted  under  the  centering  for  striking  pur- 
poses. If  the  stones  were  of  a  large  size,  little 
or  no  lagging  would  be  required,  provided 
the  ribs  were  sufficiently  near  together. 

In  the  event  of  constructing  centering  of 
this  character  for  a  dome  to  be  built  in  brick- 
work, it  would  be  necessary  to  close-board 
the  top  of  the  centre  ;  and  in  this  case  the 
boards  would  have  to  be  shaped  somewhat 


282 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


ARCH  CENTERINGS. 


283 


as  shown  at  d  (Fig.  917).  The  geometrical 
method  of  doing  this  is  as  follows  : — From 
any  convenient  points  in  the  plan  of  the 
iace  of  the  rib,  as  0  to  9,  project  up  to  the 
front  arris  of  the  soffit  in  elevation.    But  as 


to  half  the  breadth  of  the  board  in  its 
widest  part,  join  0  10,  and  continue  the  other 
arcs  to  touch  0  10  as  shown  by  the  dotted 
lines  (Fig.  917).  Now  draw  the  plans  of 
these  as  shown  by  1  to  9  (Fig.  916).  Then 


Fig.  919. — Conventional  View  showing  arrangement  of  Ribs  for  Soffit. 


Fig.  9 20. —Elevation  of  Rib  A  (Fig.  916). 


/  / 

//  y 

Fig.  921.— Elevation  of  Rib  B  (Fig.  916). 


in  this  case  the  ellipse  in  plan  is  the  same  as 
in  elevation,  points  0  to  b  may  be  used  as 
shown.  Draw  0  9  (Fig.  917)  in  the  same  line 
as  0  9  (Fig.  916).  Along  0  9  (Fig.  917) 
mark  off  distances  0  to  9  equal  to  0  to  9 
along  the  elliptic  curve  0  to  9  (Fig.  916),  con- 
tinue the  arc     e  as  e  10,  make  e  10  equal 


from  where  each  of  the  dotted  arcs  cuts  line 
0  10  (Fig.  917)  project  parallel  to  0  9  to 
intersect  with  their  plans  at  Fig.  916.  One 
of  the  projectors  is  lettered  h  h  (Figs.  916 
and  917).  Producing  these  projectors  to 
the  right,  until  they  cut  the  ordinates  0  to 
9  (Fig.  917)j  a  series  of  points  are  obtained 


284 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


through  which  the  curve  0  f  q  can  be  de- 
scribed as  shown.  The  other  half  0  v  5  is 
the  same  shape.  To  keep  the  working  on 
the  illustrations  as  clear  as  possible,  the 
spheroidal  surface  has  been  continued  in 
front  as  indicated  at  e  (Fig.  916).  The 


Centering-  for  Groin  Vaulting. 

Fig.  924  is  a  sketch  of  groin  vaulting 
over  part  of  an  octagonal  space  as  shown 
by  the  plan  (Fig.  925),  which  also  shows 
the  plans  of  the  ribs  for  the  centering.  The 


Fig.  922.— Elevation  of  Rib  C  (Fig.  916). 


Fig.  923.    Elevation  of  Rib  D  (Fig.  916). 


Fig.  924.— Sectional  Elevation  of  Vaulting  taken  on  Line  A  B  (Fig.  925). 


method  of  drawing  normals,  or  rather  joint 
lines,  of  the  voussoirs  of  the  arch  is  shown 
at  Fig.  913.  First  find  the  foci  points  of  the 
ellipse  (ab),  then,  at  the  points  where  the 
joint  commences,  draw  hues  from  each  focus 
point  and  continue  it  as'ishown  by  d  and  e  : 
bisect  the  angle  by  c  f,  which  gives  the 
direction  of  the  joint  Hne  required.  The 
other  lines  that  are  required  are  obtained 
in  the  same  manner. 


left  half  of  Fig.  926  shows  only  the  elevation 
of  the  centres  carrying  the  main  ribs  of  the 
vaulting  shown  in  plan  by  a  and  l  (Fig.  925), 
but  on  the  right  all  the  ribs  of  the  centering 
are  shown.  It  will  be  observed  that  on  each 
side  of  the  centres  carrying  the  main  ribs  of 
the  vaulting  there  is  provided  a  rib  made  of 
two  thicknesses  to  help  to  carry  the  stones  of 
the  panels  ;  these  ribs  are  lettered  g  h,  d  e, 
etc.    Under  the  intersection  of  the  panels 


266 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


a  rib  is  shown  at  f  and  p,  and  at  the  wall  end 
these  ribs  are  shown  by  R  and  s.  Small  rib 
pieces  marked  v  are  shown,  connected  to  the 
ribs  E,  F  p,  etc.  These  are  cut  to  the  form 
that  is  desired  for  the  soffits  of  the  panels. 
A  method  of  obtaining  the  shape  of  these  is 
shown  at  Fig.  927.  The  Hne  1  to  x  is  the 
true  shape  of  the  intersection  between  the 
panels  ;  6  a'  x  is  the  elevation  of  the  line 
of  intersection  as  indicated  by  1  to  5  (Fig. 
927)  ;  radial  lines  are  drawn  to  this  curve, 
meeting  the  intersection  6  a'  x  in  a'  to  e\ 


By  projecting  horizontally  from  points  1 
to  5  and  a'  to  e'  (Eig.  927)  the  positions  of 
the  rib  pieces  have  been  determined  at  1 
to  5,  etc.,  in  the  elevation  (Fig.  926).  A 
method  of  obtaining  the  true  curvature  of 
the  outline  for  the  centre  for  the  main  ribs 
is  shown  at  Fig.  928,  which  is  projected  from 
Fig.  925. 

Centering^  for  a  Hemispherical  Dome. 

The  illustrations  (Figs.  929  to  935)  show 
the  necessary  centering  and  timber  support 


Fig.  929.— Half  Sectional  Elevation  of  Dome,  and 
Elevation  of  a  Main  Rib. 


Fig,  930. — Half  Elevation  of  Centering,  and 
Timber  Stage  for  supporting  it. 


Horizontally  from  these,  points  are  pro- 
jected as  shown  ;  also  with  these  points  as 
centres,  arcs  are  drawn  meeting  the  hori- 
zontals in  points  6'  to  10' ;  then  project 
down  from  these  points  and  obtain  points 
6  to  10  in  w  z.  From  points  a'  to  e'  project 
down  to  Y  z,  obtaining  points  a  to  e.  Now 
by  drawing  arcs  joining  a  6,  6  7,  etc.,  the 
shape  of  the  edge  of  each  rib-piece  is  ob- 
tained as  shown.  The  curvature  of  these 
arcs  can  be  varied  from  almost  a  straight 
line  to  an  amount  which  would  make  the 
intersection  of  the  panels  disappear  by 
taking  the  centres  on  the  plan  of  it  (w  z). 


for  the  erection  of  a  hemispherical  dome, 
30  ft.  to  40  ft.  diameter.  Fig.  929  is  a  half- 
sectional  elevation  of  the  dome,  and  also 
shows  the  construction  of  one  of  the  main 
ribs.  At  Fig.  930  are  shown  a  half  elevation 
of  the  main  and  secondary  ribs  with  wedges, 
and  also  the  method  of  timber  supports 
under.  The  plan  of  all  the  ribs  and  main 
timbering  is  clearly  shown  at  Fig.  931.  A 
quarter  plan,  looking  up,  and  a  quarter  plan 
of  the  upper  side  of  the  supporting  stage, 
are  given  at  Fig.  932.  The  conventional  view 
(Fig.  933)  will  convey  a  fair  idea  of  this 
supporting  timber  work.    It  also  shows  a 


ARCH  CENTERINGS. 


287 


central  post,  or  raast,  to  which  some  of  the  at  a  (Fig.  934),  which  also  shows  a  form  of 
main  members  are  attached.    The  necessary     lagging  very  convenient  for  work  of  this 


Fig.  931.— Plan  of  Ribs  and 
Main  Timbering. 


/ 

/y 

1 

\\  • 



/  / 

/  / 

// 

\\ 

1  \ 

Fig.  932.  — Quarter  Plan,  looking  up,  of  Timber  Stage,  and  Quarter  Plan  of  Top  of  Stage. 

wedges,    etc.,    are   also   illustrated.    The     class,  made  by  pieces  of  scantHng  having  an 
method  of  connecting  the  secondary  ribs  to     edge  cut  to  the  curvature  of  the  soffit  of  the 
j   the  main  ones  by  a  trimming  piece  is  shown     dome  ;  their  edges  are  all  struck  from  the 

i 


288  CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  933. — Conventional  View  of  Timbering  and  Staging,  and  Part  View  of  a  Main  Rib, 


Fig.  934.  -Conventional  View  showing  Connection  of  Secondary  Rib  with  Main  Ribs,  and  Method 

of  Lagging  Centering. 

same  centre,  tlius  they  can  be  cut  from  one  same  distance,  as  indicated  at  b  and  c  (Fig. 
mould  by  a  bandsaw,  then  notched  down  934).  The  construction  of  a  secondary  rib 
on  the  ribs  so  that  they  all  project  up  the    is  shown  by  Fig.  935. 


JOINERS'  RODS. 


Introduction. — A  rod  stands  in  the  same 
relation  to  a  craftsman  as  a  scaled  drawing 
does  to  a  designer.  In  most  shops  the  work 
is  done  by  a  setter-out,  who  makes  his 
drawings  from  full-sized  details  prepared 
by  the  architect.  The  most  convenient  size 
of  rod  for  general  use  is  about  10  ft.  by 
11  in.  by  f  in.,  but  a  varied  stock  should  be 
kept.  Kods  should  be  of  pine,  free  from 
shakes  and  loose  knots.  Pine  is  chosen  on 
account  of  its  softness  and  evenness  of  grain, 
which  enables  lines  of  equal  firmness,  and 
not  easily  erasable,  to  be  drawn.  The 
boards  should  be  nicely  smoothed,  whitened 
over,  and  rubbed  with  fine  glass-paper  to 
produce  an  even  surface.  The  edges  should 
be  kept  square.  For  making  drawings  on 
the  rods,  squares  with  6-in.,  12-in.,  and 
36-in.  blades,  a  trammel,  dividers,  pencil 
compasses,  and  a  five-foot  rule,  will  be 
found  most  useful. 

Rods   for   Ledg^ed   and   Beaded  Door 
and  Frame. 

Fig.  936,  Eod  1  (scale  =  f  in.  to  1  ft.), 
shows  the  plan  of  a  ledged  and  beaded  door, 
in  a  4J-in.  by  3-in.  rebated  and  beaded 
frame,  fixed  in  a  4J-in.  wall.  (Fig.  937 
shows  a  section  of  the  door  and  frame,  and 
will  be  referred  to  later.)  This  kind  of  door 
is  generally  used  for  outhouses.  First  lay 
the  rod  on  the  bench  and  draw  a  line  parallel 
to  the  front  about  1  in.  from  the  edge,  which 
will  represent  the  face  of  the  wall.  At  a 
distance  of  4  J  in.  from  it  draw  a  parallel  line 
to  represent  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  As 
plaster  is  not  required,  the  framework  will 
be  of  the  same  thickness,  an  opening  3  ft. 

13 


wide  being  made  in  the  brickwork  to  receive 
it.  The  lines  meet  at  a  a.  The  two 
posts  B  B  are  next  filled  in,  the  outside  of 
the  frames  being  marked  ofi.'  J  in.  less  than 
the  opening,  which  saves  scribing,  as  the 
brickwork  is  always  more  or  less  rough. 
Fig.  938  shows  a  mould  of  a  wood  jamb  or 
post  used  in  Fig.  936.  If  several  patterns  of 
moulds  are  kept  in  stock,  much  time  will  be 
saved  in  setting  out.  A  space  of  2  ft.  6  in. 
is  required  in  the  clear  of  the  frame,  the 
posts  being  2f  in.  when  planed,  and  a  3-in. 
jamb  is  allowed  for.  A  line  is  next  drawn 
joining  the  rebate  at  each  end,  as  shown, 
the  thickness  of  the  door  and  a  depth  of 
J  in.  being  included.  The  space  between 
the  two  jambs  is  divided  into  five  equal 
parts,  the  two  outer  boards  which  fit  into 
the  rebates  being  J  in.  wider  than  the 
others,  so  that  they  show  equal  on  the  face; 
On  each  side  of  the  tongued  edge  at  the 
boarding  joints  a  tongue  and  bead  is  filled 
in.  The  projection  marked  c  (Fig,  936)  re- 
presents the  ledge  on  the  back,  forming  a 
rail  to  which  the  boards  are  fixed.  It  is 
made  IJ  in.  thick,  with  a  f-in.  chamfer. 
Where  possible,  an  elevation  is  drawn  at  one 
end  of  the  plan  rod,  as  shown  at  Fig.  936 
(enlarged  at  Fig.  939),  for  general  guidance. 
The  rod  is  turned  over  and  the  height  drawn 
in  section  (see  Fig.  937).  Parallel  fines  4 J  in; 
apart  are  drawn  as  before,  a  a  is  squared 
across,  and  the  head  filled  in  with  the  mould 
shown  in  Fig.  938.  From  a  a  set  down 
6  ft.  9  in.,  the  height  required,  which  gives  a 
6-ft.  6-|-in.  door.  The  ledges  or  rails  are 
filled  in  as  shown,  the  middle  one  being  3  ft. 
from  the  bottom,  the  lower  one  1  ft.  from 


29C 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


lo 


5  I 


03 


bo 


bo 


the  bottom,  and  the  top  one  9  in.  down  to 
the  under  side.    The  top  rail  is  4J  in.  wide 


Fig.  938.— Mould  of  Jamb  used  in  Fig.  936. 

and  chamfered  on  the  top  and  bottom 
edges,  the  lower  ones  7  in. 

Rods  for  Four = panelled  Moulded  and 
Square  Door  and  Frame. 

Rod  2  (Fig.  940)  (scale  =  |  in.  to  1  ft.) 
represents  the  plan  of  a  four-panelled 
moulded  and  square  door  (that  is,  with  a 
mould  on  one  side  only),  having  double 
rebated  casings,  set  in  a  9-in.  brick  wall 


Fig.  939.— Elevation  of  Ledged  Door. 

which  is  plastered  on  both  sides.  (Fig.  941 
is  the  height  rod  showing  section  of  the 


JOINERS'  RODS. 


291 


M 

Q 
O 

a. 


door.)  The  door  casing  has  deal  splayed 
grounds  and  moulded  architraves.  First 
draw  parallel  lines  in.  from  the  edge  for 
the  face  of  the  plaster.  The  rod  being  only 
11  in.  wide,  there  will  not  be  sufficient  space 
to  show  the  width  with  the  architrave  in  full. 
It  has  therefore  to  be  set  out  with  a  broken 
line,  the  out-to-out  widths  being  indicated 
by  figures.  At  a  distance  of  8  in.  from  the 
last,  a  second  parallel  line  is  drawn,  represent- 
ing the  face  of  the  plaster  on  the  opposite 
side,  lOJ  in.  being  figured  in  ;  that  is,  9  in. 
for  the  brickwork  and  |  in.  on  each  side  for 
the  plaster.  As  a  door  6  ft.  8  in.  by  2  ft.  8  in. 
by  2  in.  is  required  in  this  case,  an  opening 
of  3  ft.  is  made,  which  will  allow  for  IJ-in. 
casings  with  proper  backings.  Draw  two 
lines  3  ft.  apart,  meeting  the  parallel  fines 
at  D  D,  and  draw  another  line,  at  a  distance 


Fig  942. — Mould  of  Architrave  used 
in  Fig-.  940. 

of  J  in.,  to  form  the  back  side  of  the  casing. 
Another  fine,  drawn  at  a  distance  of  IJ  in. 
from  the  latter,  will  form  the  face  of  the 
skeleton  frame  and  the  door  rebate.  The 
width  of  the  stiles  is  filled  in  at  E.  They 
should  always  be  made  at  least  1  in.  wider 
than  the  thickness  of  the  door,  which  in 
this  case  is  2  in.  The  stiles  should  therefore 
not  be  less  than  3  in.,  so  that  sufficient  width 
is  allowed  for  the  proper  fixing  of  the  stop. 
The  finished  thickness  of  a  2-in.  door  being 
IJ  in.,  the  stop  will  be  3|  in.  narrower  than 
the  entire  width  of  the  framed  lining,  and 
as  the  latter  is  lOJ  in.,  the  stop  will  be  6|  in. 
wide  and  J  in.  thick.  Jamb  linings  are  fre- 
quently made  in  the  solid,  and,  if  so  required, 
the  setting  out  will  be  as  shown  on  the  left- 
hand  side  of  the  opening  f.  A  2-in,  by  |-in. 
splayed  deal  ground  G  is  provided  at  the 
back  of  the  linings,  and  a  3-in.  moulded 
architrave  as  seen  in  Fig.  942  filled  in.  This 
will  cover  the  joint  where  the  plaster  meets 
the  ground.  Next  fill  in  the  door,  and  draw 
a  parallel  line  to  meet  the  rebate  at  h  h  on 
each  side.  This  gives  the  thickness,  the 
stiles  being  4J  in.  wide.     Take  a  mould 


292 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


similar  to  that  shown  at  Fig.  943,  and  mark 
its  outline  on  the  rod  at  each  side  in  the 
position  indicated  by  j.  Fill  in  the  muntin 
in  the  centre  of  the  same  width,  with  a  panel 
10 J  in.  by  9f  in.,  sight  size.  Draw  the  two 
parallel  lines  K  k  representing  the  panels, 
the  moulding  on  the  face  of  the  latter  being 
filled  in  with  the  mould  shown  in  Fig.  944. 
An  elevation  is  given  at  the  end  of  the  rod 
(see  Fig.  940,  and  enlargement  at  Fig.  945). 
Turn  over  the  rod  and  fill  in  the  height,  as 
at  Fig.  941,  following  the  same  rules  as 
before.  The  door  is  shown  on  one  side  6  ft. 
8  in.  high,  wuth  bottom  and  middle  rails 
each  9  in.  wide,  and  a  top  rail  4J  in.  wide. 
The  distance  from  the  top  edge  of  the 
middle  rail  to  the  bottom  of  the  door  is  3  ft. 
In  the  opposite  rebate  the  rails  of  the  skeleton 


5 


Fig.  943.  Fig.  944. 

Fig.  943.— Mould  of  Stile  J  (Fig.  940 j. 
Fig.  944.— Mould  used  in  Fig.  940. 

frame  may  be  shown  as  seen  in  Fig.  941, 
or  left  blank  if  a  solid  lining  is  to  be 
provided. 

Rods  for  2i=in.  Deal  Door,  Bead  Butt 
and  Square. 

On  Rod  3,  shown  by  Fig.  946  (scale 
=  1  in.  to  1  ft.),  set  out  a  4|-in.  by  3-in. 
solid  rebated,  beaded,  and  stafi-beaded 
frame  fixed  in  a  14-in.  wall.  The  door  is  a 
SJ-in.  deal  one,  bead  butt  and  square,  and 
is  provided  with  a  left-hand  mortice  lock. 
(Fig.  947  shows  the  height  rod,  giving  section 
of  door  and  frame.)  The  frame  has  1-in. 
side  linings  and  soffit,  with  splayed  grounds, 
and  moulded  architraves  on  the  inside.  The 
total  width  of  the  frame  and  linings  is  lOJ 
in.,  being  a  4J-in.  brick  reveal.  The  reveal 
is  shown  by  two  square  lines  3  ft.  apart, 
and  1  in.  from  the  edge  of  the  rod.  At  each 
end  draw  a  parallel  line  3  in.  long  to  form  a 
rebate  for  the  deal  frame,  which  is  3  in. 
thick.    Mark  the  mould  shown  in  Fig.  948 


on  the  rod  as  before,  leaving  J  in.  over  the 
quirk  of  the  bead  (see  l,  Fig,  948).  Draw  a 
line  parallel  to  the  back  of  the  frame  (the 
inside  edge),  and  one  to  meet  the  rebate  for 
the  door.  Fill  in  the  stiles  and  the  muntin 
with  the  same  mould  as  before,  the  panels 
being  bead  flush — that  is,  beaded  all  round, 
and  level  with  the  face  of  the  door.  Fill 
in  with  the  mould  shown  in  Fig.  949,  a 
tongue  and  bead  being  formed.  Square 
across  from  the  groove  on  the  inside  edge 


Fig.  945. — Elevation  of  Four-panelled  Moulded  " 
Door. 

of  the  frame  to  meet  a  line  10 J  in.  from  the 
face  of  the  frame.  This  will  form  the  face 
of  the  lining.  The  thickness  is  given  by 
setting  back  1  in.,  and  squaring  across  as 
before.  The  plan  will  be  completed  when 
the  2-in,  splayed  ground  and  moulded  archi- 
trave have  been  filled  in,  and  a  sketch 
elevation  has  been  drawn  as  before  (see 
Figs.  946  and  950),  On  the  other  side  of 
the  rod  set  out  the  height,  with  rails  of 
the  same  depth,  and  complete  the  rod  by 
filling  in  the  head  and  soffit  lining,  the 
ground  and  the  architrave. 


JOINERS'  RODS. 


293 


Rods  for  Boxed  Sash  Frame. 

It  is  desirable  that  not  only  the  joiner's 
work  shall  be  shown  on  the  rod,  but  the 


1 


:  L 

Fig.  948.— 
Mould  of  Frame  used 
in  Fig.  946. 


Fig.  949.— 
Mould  of  Panel  used 
in  Fig.  946. 


■a 


Fig.  950. — Elevation  of  Four-panelled  Door. 

brickwork  in  which  it  is  placed,  and  the 
method  of  obtaining  the  interior  finishings. 
The  setting  out  a  rod  for  an  ordinary  boxed 
sash  frame,  of  which  Fig.  951  is  a  plan,  at 
the  window-board  level,  and  a  horizontal 
section  through  the  frame  and  brickwork, 
will  be  first  considered.    (Fig.  952  is  the 


294 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


vertical  section  of  the  sash.)  The  frame  is 
6  ft.  high  by  3  ft.  wide — that  is,  from  the 
top  of  the  stone  sill  to  the  springing  of  the 


fab 


arch,  and  between  the  brick  reveals,  which 
is  the  general  method  for  giving  the  sizes  of 
frames.  Take  a  rod  8  ft.  long  and  12  in. 
wide,  and  prepare  it  as  before.    Draw  a  line 


1  in.  from  the  edge  3  ft.  9  in.  long,  parallel 
with  it,  and  from  each  extremity  set  in 
41  in.,  leaving  the  3-ft.  reveal  a  a.  It  is 
immaterial  what  portion  of  the  brick  reveal 
is  shown  ;  the  rod  being  too  narrow  to  show 
the  usual  4J  in.,  an  inch  is  sufficient  for  the 
purpose.  Square  across  from  each  ex- 
tremity a  line  9|  in.  long,  and  from  each 
point  of  the  last  lines  draw  another  parallel 
to  B  B.  These  lines  represent  the  face  of 
the  plaster,  and  a  line  |  in.  from  the  line 
B  B  will  give  the  thickness  of  the  plaster. 
These  parts,  from  a  to  b  on  each  side,  should 
be  marked  with  red  crayon  to  indicate  that 
it  is  solid  brickw^ork,  blue  crayon  being  put  on 


Fig.  953. — Enlarged  Section  through  Side 
Boxings  of  Frame. 


for  the  plaster.  Next  proceed  to  fill  in  the 
frame  and  finishings.  In  this  instance  the 
sashes  are  2  in.  thick  with  1  in.  outer  and 
inner  linings,  making  the  total  thickness 
6J  in.  as  shown  in  the  enlarged  detail  (Fig. 
953).  Draw  a  line  6 J  in.  from  the  face  line 
c  to  represent  the  thickness  of  the  frame  ; 
at  a  distance  of  |  in.  from  the  same  line 
draw  another  to  represent  the  thickness  of 
the  outer  lining  ;  fill  in  the  lines  at  d  d  to 
form  the  pulley  stiles,  and  draw  the  line  e 
IJ  in.  from  the  line  d  d  for  the  thickness  of 
the  pulley  stile.  From  the  inner  line  of  the 
frame  fill  in  the  inside  lining  J  in.  thick  at 
F  F  ;  also  add  tongues  to  the  pulley  stiles. 
The  width  of  the  inner  and  outer  linings  is 
the  same,  being  4^  in.,  the  outer  one  project- 
ing f  m.  to  form  the  stop  for  the  sash  and 


JOINERS'  RODS. 


295 


a  margin  round  the  brick  reveal.  The  inner 
one  is  level  with  the  face  of  the  pulley  stile, 
and  projects  f  in.  at  each  side,  allowing 
sufficient  room  to  enable  a  plough  groove 
to  be  made  to  receive  the  back  linings  at 
G  G.  Care  should  be  taken  to  fill  in  all 
details.  The  sashes  being  cut  out  of  2-in. 
stuff  will  finish  1|  in.  Fill  in  a  dotted  fine 
1^  in.  from  the  dotted  fine  h  to  represent 
the  upper  sash.  This  is  shown  dotted  be- 
cause the  section  line  does  not  cut  through 
it.  At  a  distance  of  |  in.  from  the  last  line 
draw  a  line  for  the  parting  bead,  and  another 
for  the  thickness  of  the  sash,  leaving  IJ  in. 
for  the  width  of  the  stop  bead  i  and  the 
draught  bead  which  is  tongued  to  sill.  In 
setting  out  the  thickness  of  a  frame,  take 
care  to  allow  the  stop  bead  to  cover  the 
joint  between  the  pulley  stile  and  the  inside 
lining.    Fill  in  the  parting  bead,  allowing  it 


Fig.  954.  Fig.  956.  Fig.  955. 

Fig.  954.— Mould  for  Bead. 
Fig.  955.— Mould  for  Sash  Stile. 
Fig.  956. — Mould  for  Architrave. 


to  pass  into  a  groove  formed  in  the  pulley 
stile  i  in.  deep.  This  will  then  project 
f  in.  beyond  the  face  of  the  pulley  stile. 
Take  the  mould  (Fig.  954),  and  fill  in  the  bead 
I ;  take  also  the  mould  (Fig.  955),  and  fill 
in  the  stiles  of  the  sashes.  Put  in  the 
parting  slips  J  which  separate  the  weights. 
From  the  inside  face  of  the  pulley  stile 
mark  on  3  in.,  and  allow  it  to  form  a  margin 
round  the  frame,  as  shown ;  this  will  show 
the  position  of  the  face  of  the  side  linings 
and  soffit,  which  are  tongued  with  the  in- 
side lining  of  the  frame,  which  is  grooved 
to  receive  the  tongue.  This  lining  will 
finish,  in  width,  level  with  the  face  of  the 
plaster,  and  will  be  an  inch  thick.  Fill  in 
the  architrave  k  with  the  mould  (Fig.  956) 
as  shown.  Draw  a  line  L  ^  in.  from  the 
face  of  the  architrave  to  represent  the  front 
edge  of  the  window -board.    Square  across 


a  line  at  each  end  in  the  same  position  as 
the  architrave  to  form  the  return  ends  of  the 
window-board.  The  rough  grounds  behind 
the  architraves,  to  which  the  latter  are 


Fig.  957.— Mould  for  Oak  Sill. 


fixed,  provide  a  good  base  for  fixing  the 
finings,  and  a  key  for  the  plaster. 

Height  Rod. — Turn  the  rod  over  and  set 
out  the  vertical  section  or  height  as  at  Fig. 
952.  The  height  of  the  frame  is  6  ft.  Draw 
a  fine  as  before  1  in.  from  the  edge  of  the 
rod,  stopping  at  the  line  forming  the  top  of 
the  stone  sill,  and  running  4|  in.  beyond  the 
6  ft.  height.  Fill  in  the  sill  with  the  mould 
shown  in  Fig.  957,  and  continue  the  6|-in. 
line  (the  thickness  of  frame)  up  to  the  head. 
Square  across  the  line  representing  the  soffit 
of  the  frame,  and  draw  the  lines  for  inner 
and  outer  linings  as  before.  Fill  in  the 
draught  bead  with  the  mould  (Fig.  958). 
The  inside  face  of  the  bottom  rail  of  sash 
will  be  slightly  bevelled  to  allow  the  sash  to 
pass  the  wide  draught  bead  when  closing. 
With  the  mould  (Fig.  955)  fill  in  the  moulding 
of  the  bottom  rail  of  the  sash  4J  in.  wide 
to  the  splayed  edge,  also  fill  in  the  top  rail 
of  the  upper  sash.  Divide  the  space  be- 
tween the  sight  of  each  rail  into  two  equal 
parts,  the  centre  thus  obtained  being  the 
centre  line  of  the  meeting  rails.    The  latter 


Fig.  958.— Mould  for  Draught  Bead. 

are  IJ  in.  thick.  Fill  in  the  rails  as  show^n, 
the  size  of  the  glass  being  the  same  in  both 
sashes.  Fill  in  the  upper  part  of  the  frame 
in  sectional   plan   as   before.    Write  the 


296 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


number  of  the  job  on  the  rod,  and  sketch  in 
the  elevation  as  shown  at  Fig.  959.  Figs. 
951  and  952  are  drawn  to  a  scale  of  |  in.  to 
1  ft.,  Fig.  959  to  a  scale  of  J  in.  to  1  ft.. 
Fig.  954  half  full  size,  and  the  remaining 
figures  one-third  full  size. 

Rods  for  Solid  Casement  Frame. 

Figs.  960  to  962  show  a  plan,  section,  and 
elevation  of  a  solid  casement  frame.  Take 
a  rod  of  the  same  size  as  the  last  and  set 


Fig.  959. — Elevation  of  Sash  Frame. 

out  the  plan  as  at  Fig.  960.  The  frame  is 
set  in  a  9-in.  wall  with  a  3-lt.  6-in.  reveal. 
Draw  a  line  a  of  any  length  an  inch  from 
the  edge  of  the  rod,  and  square  lines  across 
at  B  B  4J  in.  long,  another  line  c  being  drawn 
parallel  with  A  and  projecting  3 J  in.  at  each 
side  beyond  the  3-ft.  6-in.  reveal.  The 
thickness  of  the  wall  is  given  by  drawing  a 
line  9  in.  from  the  line  a.  With  the  mould 
shown  in  Fig.  963,  fill  in  the  jamb  of  the 
frame  at  each  side,  projecting  j  in.  from 
brickwork  as  shown  (see  line  d,  Fig.  963). 
Fill  in  the  sash  stiles  with  the  mould  shown 
in  Fig,  955  (p.  295),  allowing  sufficient  width 
in  the  meeting  stiles  to  form  the  hook 
joint,  and  sufiicient  width  on  the  outer  stiles 
to  form  the  circular  tongue.  The  sight 
size — that  is,  the  clear  size  between  the 


square  of  the  moulding — is  the  same  in  both 
lights.  To  obtain  the  exact  positions  of  the 
centre  or  meeting  stiles,  first  fill  in  the 


hanging  stiles  and  divide  the  space  into 
two  equal  parts,  working  from  the  centre 
point  outwards  for  distance.  The  method 
of  working  from  a  centre  will  be  found  far 


JOINERS'  RODS. 


297 


preferable  to  any  other,  as  it  enables  the 
work  to  be  done  more  exactly.  After  filling 
in  the  sashes,  continue  all  lines  as  shown, 
and  fill  in  the  architraves  with  the  mould 
seen  in  Fig.  964,  leaving  a  proper  margin. 
The  brickwork  and  plaster  are  filled  in  from 
the   moulding  as   before.    Turn   the  rod 


Fig.  964.— Mould  for  Architrave       Fig.  966.— Mould  for  Transom    Fig.  967.— Mould  for  Head  used 
used  in  Figs.  960  and  961.  used  in  Fig.  961.  in  Fig.  961. 


as  shown.  A  mould  for  each  width  should 
be  kept  for  general  use.  Figs.  960  and  961 
are  drawn  to  a  scale  of  f  in.  to  1  ft.,  Fig.  962 
to  a  scale  of  J  in.  to  1  ft.,  and  the  remaining 
figures  one-third  full  size. 

Rods  for  Square  Bay  Window. 

Take  a  rod  8  ft.  long  by  3  ft.  wide,  and 
set  out  a  square  bay  window,  with  soHd 
frame,  6  ft.  by  2  ft.  The  width  rod  is  repre- 
sented by  Fig.  968,  and  the  height  rod  by 
Fig.  969.  Draw  a  Hue  for  the  face  of  the 
wall  (see  Fig.  968),  and  from  it  draw  two 


of  it  set  up  1  ft.  51  in.  to  the  under  side  of  the 
head.  The  head  is  filled  in  with  the  mould 
shown  in  Fig.  967.  With  the  mo^ild  shown 
at  Fig.  964  fill  in  the  architrave,  continuing 
all  lines  as  shown.  The  mouldings  of  the 
sash  rails  are  filled  in  with  the  mould  shown  in 
Fig.  955  (p.  295),  the  widths  being  those  usual, 


round  and  set  out  the  section  shown  in  Fig. 
961.  The  distance  from  the  top  of  the  stone 
sill  to  the  under  side  of  the  arch  at  spring- 
ing is  6  ft.  From  the  front  edge  of  the  rod, 
square  a  line  across  to  represent  the  top 
of  the  sill,  and  another  6  ft.  from  it  for 
the  springing.  Show  the  reveal  as  before 
4:J  in.  from  the  face  of  the  frame  to  the  face 
of  the  wall.    With  the  mould  shown  in  Fig. 

965  fill  in  the  oak  sill,  and  from  the  top  of 
the  latter  set  up  4  ft.  to  the  under  side  of  the 
transom.    With  the  mould  shown  by  Fig. 

966  fill  in  the  transom,  and  from  the  top 


298 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


lines  6  ft.  apart  and  each  2  ft.  long.  Join  angle  posts  and  the  mullions  being  1  ft.  7  in. 
the  two  points  forming  the  outside  of  the  Mark  on  the  section  of  the  mullion  with  the 
bay,  fill  in  the  angle  posts  with  the  mould     mould  shown  in  Fig.  972,  the  hollows  in  the 


seen  in  Fig.  970,  and  with  the  mould  seen 
in  Fig.  971  fill  in  the  wall  posts  as  shown. 
Divide  the  distance  between  the  angle  posts 
into  three  parts,  allowing  7  in.  for  the  thick- 
ness of  the  mullions,  the  distance  between  the 


rebating  being  filled  in  as  required.  With 
the  mould  seen  in  Fig.  955  (p.  295),  fill  in 
the  sash  stiles,  and  continue  all  the  lines  as 
before,  carrying  the  width  of  the  casement 
into  the  space  as  shown.    Fill  in  the  stiles, 


JOINERS'  RODS. 


299 


divide  the  space  between  the  sight  lines  into  and  fill  in  the  head  with  the  mould  seen 

four  parts,  deducting  3  in.  for  bars,  and  in  Fig.  974,  and  the  transom  with  the 

the  plan  of  the  fanhght  will  be  complete  mould  seen  in  Fig.  966  (p.  297).    The  rails 

(see  B,  Fig.  968).    In  the  inner  edge  of  the  are  filled  in  as  described  in  the  previous 


Fig.  970.— Mould  for  Angle  Post    Fig.  971.— Mould  for  Wall  Post 


used  in  Fig.  968. 


used  in  Fig.  968. 


Fig.  973.— Mould  for  Sill  used  in 
Fig.  969. 


Fig.  974.— Mould  for  Head  used 
in  Fig.  969. 


J 


Fig.  975.— Elevation  for  Square  Bay  Window. 


wall  posts  plough  a  groove  to  receive  the 
tongue  on  the  lining  a,  and  fill  in  the  lining 
and  bead  to  the  broken  line.  Turn  over 
the  rod,  and  set  out  the  section  or  height 
shown  in  Fig.  969.  This  is  6  ft.  from  the 
top  of  the  stone  sill  to  the  top  of  the  head 
of  the  frame.  Commence  as  before,  and  fill 
in  the  sill  with  the  mould  seen  in  Fig.  973, 


paragraph,  and  the  upper  sash  divided 
into  squares  as  shown  in  Figs.  969  and  975, 
the  latter  figure  also  showing  the  stops  on 
the  moulding  of  the  angle  post.  Figs. 
968  and  969  are  drawn  to  a  scale  of  |  in. 
to  the  foot,  Fig.  975  to  a  scale  of  J  in.  to 
the  foot,  and  the  remaining  figures  are  one- 
third  full  size. 


300 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Rods  for  Canted  Bay  Window. 

Figs.  976  and  977  represent  respectively 
the  width  rod  and  height  rod  for  a  canted 


bay  window  set  in  stone  mulHons  and  jambs. 
These  are  set  out  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  frame  described  on  Rod  1  (Figs.  936  and 
937,  p.  290),  except  that  at  the  sides  or  cants 


the  parallel  Hnes  are  made  with  the  aid  of  a 
straightedge  and  the  perpendicular  with  a 
set-square.  If  the  bay  window  is  required 
to  be  made  in  wood  without  stone  mullions, 


a 
o 
q: 


etc.,  the  work  is  similarly  set  out,  but  the 
boxings  for  the  weights  are  kept  as  small  as 
possible,  and  the  outer  linings  mitred  at 
the  angles,  a  moulding  being  generally  intro- 


JOINERS'  RODS. 


301 


lii 

liii 


Fig.  982. — Longitudinal  Section  through  Skylight. 


302 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


duced  to  form  a  margin  round  each  frame. 
Fig.  978  shows  the  mould  for  the  horn  or 
projecting  end  of  the  upper  sash  at  the 
meeting  rail.  All  the  other  moulds  for  this 
rod  can  be  made  by  modifying  those  previ- 
ously described.  Figs.  976  and  977  are 
drawn  to  a  scale  of  |  in.  to  the  foot,  and 
Fig.  978  is  one-third  full  size. 

Rods  for  Skyligfht. 

To  set  out  the  skylight  shown  in  Figs. 
979  to  982  it  will  be  first  necessary  to  set 
out  Fig.  981,  which,  being  the  section,  shows 


7 


'In 


Fig.  983. — Detail  at  Apex  of  Skylight,  showing 
Ridge  Boll. 

alljfinishings.  The  curb  forms  the  trimmer 
joists  of  the  flat.  The  two  long  sides  are 
splayed  to  the  roof  pitch.  The  opening  in  the 
rough  curb  is  6  ft.  by  4  ft.  in  clear,  the  roof 
rising  1  ft.  6  in.  ;  the  apron  lining  which 
covers  the  rough  curb  is  of  1-in.  stuff  beaded 
on  the  bottom  edge  and  grooved  for  the 
plastered  ceiling  on  the  back  side  ;  the 
moulding  running  round  along  the  top  of  the 
apron  is  hollow  on  the  top  to  form  a  con- 
densation gutter.  The  light  itself  is  2  in. 
thick,  with  stiles,  top  rails,  and  bars  moulded. 
The  bottom  rail  is  left  square  on  the  top 
edge,  and  grooved  on  the  under  side  at  the 
bottom  to  form  a  drip  for  rainwater  ;  the 
top  rail  and  ridge  roll  are  covered  with  5-lb. 
lead,  dressed  so  as  to  cover  the  putty  in  the 
groove  of  the  top  rail.  The  ends  are  formed 
by  fixing  a  fillet  on  the  upper  edge  of  the 
curb  ;  also  on  the  under  side  of  the  stiles  of 
the  light  1-in.  rough  boarding  is  cut  spandril 


shape  and  fixed  on  the  outside  ;  |-in.  board- 
ing on  the  inside  finishing  flush  with  the  face 
of  the  apron  lining,  and  the  ends  butting  on 
the  top  edge  of  the  latter  lining.  Get  a 
rod  8  ft.  long  by  3  ft.  wide  ;  from  the  edge 
draw  a  parallel  line  1  in.  from  it ;  set  up  a 
perpendicular  for  the  centre  line,  the  rough 
curb  being  4  ft.  in  the  clear  ;  measure  off 
2  ft.  on  each  side  from  the  centre  line,  and 
set  up  lines  11|  in.  high,  representing 
trimmers   and  plaster.    Now  draw  a  line 


Fig.  984.— Section  through  Curb  of  Skylight, 
showing  Apron  Lining  and  Moulding. 

parallel  with  the  first,  meeting  at  the  two 
points  A  A  (Fig.  981).  The  latter  line  will 
be  the  level  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  curb. 
From  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  latter 
line  with  the  centre  at  b,  set  up  1  ft.  6  in., 
this  being  the  rise  of  the  roof  on  the  inside 
face  of  the  framing  at  c.  Now  draw  lines 
cutting  c  A  on  each  side,  allowing  the  lines 
to  project  to  beyond  a.  Measure  off;^2  in. 
from  this  line,  and  fill  in  the  thickness  of 
the  skylight.  Add  also  the  ridge  roll  (see 
Fig.  983).  Now  fill  in  lines  representing 
the  apron  Hning  at  d.  Seven-eighths  of  an 
inch  from  the  curb,  form  a  J-in.  bead  on  the 
bottom  edge  as  shown.  The  upper  edge 
will  be  splayed  the  same  as  the  curb  ;  fill 
in  the  thickness  of  the  curb  2J  in.  ;  form  a 


JOINERS'  RODS. 


303 


slight  rebate  on  the  top  edge,  outside,  to 
receive  the  lead  dressing  ;  and  form  the 
moulding  on  the  top  rail  at  e,  allowing  3| 
in.  for  the  width.  Note  that  the  top  rail  is 
grooved  for  the  glass  instead  of  being  rebated 
(as  is  usual)  at  the  sides.    The  bottom  rail 


includes  the  thickness  of  the  rough  boarding 
at  I.  Fill  in  the  fillets  j  j  at  the  top  and 
bottom.  Now  from  the  two  lines,  first 
drawn  on  the  inner  side,  measure  J  in. 
for  the  thickness  of  the  apron  lining  and 
matched  boarding  ;  continue  the  line  from 


Fig.  985. — Detail  showing  Method  of  Fixing  Bar  to  Bottom  Rail. 


should  carry  about  the  same  line  of  sight  as 
the  moulding  vertically  ;  it  will  therefore 
project  2  in.  on  the  horizontal  line.  Indicate 
roughly  the  depth  of  the  joist,  and  show 
boarding  and  lead  to  flat.  Divide  the  space 
at  the  spandril  end,  and  fill  in  the  lines  to 
represent  the  beaded  joint  of  the  matched 


Fig.  986.— Detail  Section  through  Stile  and  Side 
of  Skylight. 


boarding  f.  Turn  the  rod  over,  and  set  out 
Fig.  982  ;  draw  a  line  1  in.  from  the  edge  as 
before,  and  set  up  two  perpendiculars  6  ft. 
apart.  These  lines  must  be  the  same  length 
as  from  c  to  g  (Fig.  981),  being  the  height 
to  the  under  side  of  the  framing.  Draw  a 
parallel  line  cutting  the  two  points  at  h  h, 
allowing  4  J  in.  longer  at  each  end.  Measure 
ofi  2 J  in.  at  each  side  for  the  thickness  of  the 
curb  and  set  up  another  line  to  c.  This 


c  to  G  ;  form  a  bead  on  the  bottom  edge 
of  the  apron  as  shown  in  Fig.  981  ;  also  the 
moulding  at  k.  Draw  line  l  parallel  with 
c  and  2  in.  from  it,  representing  the  sight 
line  on  the  top  rail.  From  face  line  of 
boarding  M  measure  off  2  in.,  and  set  up 
perpendicular  n,  meeting  at  line  L.  Now 
divide  the  distance  between  these  two  lines 
into  five  parts,  allowing  IJ  in.  each  for  the 
four  bars  o,  making  the  spaces  12 J  in.  each  ; 
the  lines  forming  these  openings  are  sight 
lines.  Fill  in  the  two  lines  above,  and 
parallel  with,  c,  representing  the  ridge  roll. 
Fig.  980,  which  is  a  sectional  plan  through 
the  framing,  may  be  set  out  on  an  ordinary 
rod  8  ft.  long  by  11  in.,  and  to  figured  dimen- 
sions ;  it  is  unnecessary  to  set  out  Fig.  979 
full  size  on  a  rod,  the  figure  being  intended 
simply  for  illustration  and  as  a  guide.  Figs. 
983  to  98G  are  enlarged  details  of  the  several 
parts. 

Rods  for  Recess  Cupboard  Front  in 
Two  Heig-hts. 

To  set  out  a  cupboard  front  for  a  recess 
at  the  side  of  a  chimney  breast,  take  a  rod 


304 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


8  ft.  long  by  11  in.  wide,  and  proceed  with 
the  setting  out  shown  at  Figs.  987  and  988. 
The  cupboard  front  will  be  7  ft.  high  from 


o 
O 


o 


o 
P3 

I 

CO 
05 

hp 


o 

-a 

O 


ho 
o 

.S3 


IJ  in.,  allowing  |  in.  on  each  face  for  the 
plaster  a  a.  The  brickwork  on  the  right- 
hand  side  is  part  of  the  side  w^all  of  the 
room,  while  that  on  the  left  hand  is  part 
of  the  side  of  the  chimney  breast,  which  is 


Fig.  989.— Detail  of  Cornice  of  Recess  Cupboard, 


4.  0' 


Fig.  990. — Elevation  of  Recess  Cupboard  Front. 


Fig.  991.— Detail  of  Angle  Stile  to  Chimney 
Breast. 


the  floor  level  to  the  top  of  the  cornice, 
4  ft.  1^  in.  wide  between  the  brickwork  of  the 
recess,  and  9  in.  deep  between  the  faces  of 
the  brickwork  reveal.  Begin  as  before  with 
the  rod  by  setting  out  the  brickwork  4  ft. 


9  in.  deep.  Fill  in  a  line  |-  in.  from  the 
chimney  breast  to  represent  the  face  of  the 
plaster  at  b.  Next  draw  a  line  parallel  with 
the  edge  of  the  rod,  and  |  in.  from  the  face 
of  the  plaster  b,  to  represent  the  face  of  the 
cupboard  framing  c.    Draw  a  parallel  line 


JOINERS'  RODS. 


305 


bp 


1|  in.  from  the  last, 
to  represent  IJ  in. 
front,  finishing  the 
line  on  right-hand 
side  at  the  brick- 
work, and  on  the 
left-hand  side  at  the 
face  of  the  plaster. 
Fill  in  the  stile  and 
angle  bead  d  with  the 
mould  seen  at  Fig. 
991.  The  stiles  must 
be  set  out  to  the 
figured  dimensions. 
The  doors  are  hung 
folding  in  two  widths, 
the  centre  of  the 
rebate  being  equidis- 
tant from  the  outer 
hanging  stiles. 
Square  across  the 
sight  lines  of  the 
framing  from  the 
edge  of  the  rod,  and 
fill  in  the  panels  J  in. 
thick  and  f  in.  from 
the  face  of  the  door 
framing.  If  moulding 
is  required,  the  panel 
will  need  to  be  set 
back  accordingly. 
Turn  the  rod  over, 
and  set  out  the 
height  as  shown  in 
the  section  (Fig.  988). 
The  height  being  7  ft., 
square  a  line  across 
the  rod  at  each  end 
to  represent  it,  and 
draw  the  face  and 
thickness  lines  paral- 
lel as  before.  Work- 
ing from  the  dimen- 
sions given  on  the 
width  rod  (Fig.  987), 
the  height  from  the 
floor  to  the  top  of 
the  lower  doors  will 
be  2  ft.  9  in.,  these 
being  surmounted  by 
a  3-in.  dividing  rail. 
Fill  in  the  beads  on 
the    edges    of  the 


306 


CARPENTKY  AND  JOINERY. 


horizontal  rails,  and  project  tlie  top  of  the  driven  into  the  joints  of  the  brickwork; 

cupboard  sufficiently  to  take  the  moulding  When  fixed  they  form  a  stop  for  the  doors; 

shown  at  Fig.  989,  which  forms  a  cornice,  The  left-hand  doors  are  secured  by  necked 

and  returns  into  and  stops  on  the  face  of  the  bolts  fixed  on  the  inside  and  shot  into  the 


Rod  I 


Fig.  995. — Width  Rod  showing  Sectional  Plan  of  Linen  Press  on 
Line  A  A  (Fig.  993). 


Fig.  996. — Width  Rod  showing  Sectional  Plan  of  Linen  Press  on 
Line  B  B  (Fig.  993). 


Fig.  998.— Detail  of  Front 
of  Tray  of  Linen  Press. 


Fig.  997.— Detail  of  Meet- 
ing Stiles  of  Doors  of 
Linen  Press. 


Fig.  999. — Height  Rod,  showing  Vertical  Section  of  Linen  Press  on  Line  C  C  (Fig.  995). 


plaster  as  seen  at  Fig.  990,  or  on  the  face 
of  the  top  rail.  The  shelves  are  conveni- 
ently distanced  apart,  and  are  generally 
fixed  on  fillets  or  bearers,  secured  to  plugs 


upper  face  of  the  shelf.  Figs.  987  and  988 
are  drawn  to  a  scale  of  |  in.  to  the  foot, 
Fig.  990  to  a  scale  of  J  in.  to  the  foot,  the  re- 
maining figures  being  one-third  full  size. 


JOINERS'  RODS. 


307 


Rods  for  Linen  Press. 

Figs.  992,  993,  and  994  show  respectively 
an  external  elevation,  an  internal  elevation, 
and  an  end  elevation  of  a  linen  press.  The 
interior,  as  will  be  seen,  is  fitted  up  with 


Fig.  1000.— Detail  of  Section  through  Drawer  of 
Linen  Press. 


Fig.  1001.— Detail  of  Cornice  of  Linen  Press. 

drawers  and  trays,  the  former  being  arranged 
at  the  bottom  and  the  latter  at  the  top. 
The  press  is  7  ft.  high,  5  ft.  wide,  and  2  ft. 
deep,  and  the  front  is  formed  by  a  pair  of 
five-panelled  moulded  doors.  The  cornice 
is  made  separate,  and  drops  on  the  top  of 
the  carcase.  Take  a  rod  8  ft.  long  and  2  ft. 
6  in.  wide,  and  proceed  to  set  out  the  plans, 
shown  at  Figs.  995  and  996.  Fig.  995  is  a 
horizontal  sectional  plan  at  a  a  (Fig.  993), 
and  Fig.  996  is  a  similar  plan  at  b  b  (Fig. 
993),  showing  the  drawers.  Draw  the  outer 
lines  in  the  usual  manner,  and  take  a  mould, 
similar  to  that  shown  by  Fig.  997,  and  fill 


in  the  position  of  the  door  stiles  ;  add  the 
panels  and  moulding.  The  ends  are  framed 
together  with  solid  panels,  the  bead  being 
flush  on  the  outside.  Fill  in  the  stiles  and 
the  tongues  and  beads  on  the  panels,  and 
allow  J  in.  for  the  panelled  framing  at  the 


Fig.  1002.— Detail  of  Plinth  of  Linen  Press. 


Fig.  1003.— Detail  showing  Dovetail  Runner 
with  Dovetailed  Front  and  End  to  Tray. 

back.  Divide  the  press  up  as  shown  in 
Fig.  996,  making  the  panels  flush  on  the 
inside.  The  double  lines  shown  on  the  in- 
side of  the  framing  at  Fig.  995  represent 
the  thickness  of  the  sides  of  the  tray,  which 
I  in.  (see  detail  Fig.  998).     These  trays 


IS 


are  made  of  mahogany,  and  have  holes  cut 
in  the  front  for  the  hand,  as  shown  at  Fig. 
993.  Turn  over  the  rod  and  set  out  the  plan 
of  the  drawers.  The  length  is  2  ft.  4 J  in. 
between  the  standard  and  ends.  Let  the 
drawers  stand  back  1  in.  from  the  face  edge 
of  the  end  to  give  room  for  the  drop  handle. 
On  another   rod  (2)  set  out  the  vertical 


308 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


section,  shown  at  Fig.  999.  Divide  up  the  door,  the  square  on  the  upper  edge  of  the 
spaces  as  figured  in.  A  detail  of  the  drawer  pHnth  forming  a  margin  along  the  front  and 
in  section  is  given  at  Fig.  1000  ;  a  similar    ends.    Fig.  1003  shows  the  front  d  and  the 


detail  of  ihe  tray  is  shown  at  Fig.  998  ;  a  end  e  of  a  tray,  dotted  Hues  representing  the 

detail  of  the  cornice  at  Fig.  1001  ;  and  the  dovetails.    The  top  edge  of  the  rim  is 

plinth  at  Fig.  1002.    It  will  be  noticed  that  mitred  at  the  angles,  and  the  hardw^ood 

the  bottom  projects  sufl&ciently  from  the  runner  f  is  dovetailed  into  the  end  G  and 

face  of  the  ends  to  take  the  thickness  of  the  stopped  2  in.  from  the  face  edge  of  the  end 


310 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


of  the  carcase.  Figs.  992  to  996  and  Fig. 
999  are  drawn  to  a  scale  of  J  in.  to  the  foot ; 
the  remaining  figures  are  one-tliird  full 
size. 


and  each  compartment  is  2  ft.  10 J  in.  in  the 
clear,  with  1  J-in.  ends  and  division  standards, 
which  stand  flush  with  the  face  of  the  doors 


Fig,  1009. — Detail  of  Portable  Cupboard  at  C 
(Fig.  1006). 

Rods  for  Portable  Cupboard. 

Figs.  1004  and  1005  show  a  portable  cup- 
board adapted  for  glass  and  china.  Two 
heights  are  given  for  this  cupboard,  but 


Fig.  1011.  ^Detail  of  Portable  Cupboard  at  B 
(Fig.  1008). 

in  each  case.  The  width  from  back  to  front 
of  the  lower  part,  exclusive  of  the  projection 
of  the  top,  is  2  ft.  ;  the  upper  one  is  13  in. 


Fig.  1010,— Detail  of  Portable  Cupboard  at  D  (Fig.  1006). 


each  is  complete  in  itself,  and  each  is  divided 
into  three  compartments,  with  folding  doors 
to  the  upper  part  and  sliding  doors  to  the 
lower.  The  back  of  the  cupboard  is  com- 
posed of  |-in.  V'jointed  matching  in  narrow 
widths,  the  top,  bottom,  and  ends  being 
rebated  to  receive  it.  The  ends  of  the  lower 
cupboard  are  panelled  ;  those  of  the  upper 
one  are  solid.  The  extreme  width  of  the 
cupboard  is  9  ft.,  exclusive  of  the  projection, 


The  height  from  floor  level  to  the  top  of  the 
lower  part  is  2  ft.  10  in.  ;  the  upper  part 
from  top  to  top,  4  ft.  2  in.,  making  in  all  7  it. 
The  shelves  are  divided  equally,  9J  in.  and 
11 J  in.  respectively.  Prepare  moulds  for 
each  separate  part  to  details,  and  retain  for 
future  use.  Take  a  rod  2  ft.  4  in.  wide  and 
10  ft.  long,  and  set  out  the  plan  of  the  upper 
and  lower  cupboards  as  in  Figs.  1006  and 
1007,  one  on  each  side.    Begin  by  drawing 


JOINERS'  RODS. 


311 


all  the  outer  lines,  and  work  inwards.  Prepare 
a  slip  J  in.  thick  and  1|  in.  wide,  the  finished 
thicknesses  of  the  outer  standards  or  ends 
and  divisions.  Divide  the  plan  into  three 
equal  parts,  as  show^n,  2  ft.  10 J  in.  m  the 
clear.  From  the  face  line  a  (Fig.  1006)  draw 
lines  at  distances  figured  in  detail  in  Fig. 


Fig.  1012. 


Sketch  of  Roller  for  Portable 
Cupboard. 


Fig.  1013.— Detail  of  Portable  Cupboard  at  F 
(Fig.  1008). 

1008 — I  in.  for  bead,  IJ  in.  for  front  door, 
J  in.  for  parting  bead,  IJ  in.  for  back  door 
— form  the  tongue,  and  groove  in  the  stiles 
as  shown  in  detail  in  Fig.  1009.  Fill  in  the 
stiles  and  panels  as  in  Fig.  1010.  Mark  along 
the  back  the  spaces  indicating  the  widths 
of  the  matched  lining.  Turn  the  rod  over 
and  set  out  Fig.  1007  in  the  same  way.  Take 
another  rod  the  same  length,  2  ft.  4  in. 
wide,  and  set  out  the  section  or  height,  fol- 
lowing the  same  rules  as  before.  This  is 
shown  on  rod  2  (Fig.  1008).  Arrange  the 
lower  sliding  doors  as  shown  in  Fig.  1011. 
The  roller  (Fig.  1012)  is  fitted  into  the  bottom 


edge  of  the  door  ;  two  are  fixed  to  each  door, 
the  face  of  the  roller  being  flush  with  the 
edge.  The  brass  strip  e,  fixed  with  screws, 
is  let  in  flush  with  the  bottom  or  pot  board, 
and  forms  a  runner.    The  beads  must  be 


Fig.  1014.— Mould  for  Scotia  of  Portable 
Cupboard. 

shown  slack  with  the  door,  because  if  the 
latter  is  fixed  tight  it  will  not  work  freely. 
The  thicknessing  piece  f  (Fig.  1008),  shown 
in  detail  in  Fig.  1013,  is  continuous,  and  is 
intended  to  strengthen  the  top,  so  th^-t  any 
extra  weight  put  upon  it  may  not  interfere 
with  the  easy  working  of  the  doors.  Fig. 
1014  shows  the  mould  for  the  scotia.  Figs. 
1004  and  1005  are  drawn  to  a  scale  of  -J  in.  to 
the  foot.  Figs.  1006  to  1008  to  a  scale  of  |  in. 
to  the  foot,  and  the  remaining  figures  one- 
third  full  size. 


DOORS   AND   DOOR  FRAMES. 


Varieties  of  Common  Doors. 

Common  doors  are  constructed  in  a  number 
of  styles.  The  principal  three  are  the  fol- 
lowing, which  are  presented  in  the  order  of 
their  cost  and  strength  :   the  ledged  door 


for  doors  are  given  in  the  section  on  joiners' 
rods  (see  pp.  289  to  oil),  and  these  in- 
structions will  form  a  basis  from  which  to 
prepare  rods  for  any  of  the  doors  here  men- 
tioned. 


I 


Fig.  1020. 


Fig.  1015.        Fig.  1016.  Fig.  1017.        Fig.  1018.  Fig.  1019. 

Fig.  1015.— Back  of  Ledged  Door.       Fig.  1016.— Back  Edge  of  Ledged  Door.       Fig.  1017.— Front 
of  Ledged  Door.       Fig.  1018.— Front  Edge  of  Ledged  Door.      Fig.  1019.— Back  of  Framed 
and  Braced  Door.       Fig.  1020. — Section  of  Framed  and  Braced  Door. 


(Figs.  1015  to  1018)  ;  the  ledged  and  braced 
door  (Figs.  1019  to  1022)  ;  and  the  framed  and 
braced  narrow  batten  door  (Figs.  1023  to 
1026).  With  regard  to  the  setting  out  of 
these,  instructions  on  preparing  joiners'  rods 


Ledg-ed  Doors  and  Frame. 

The  construction  of  one  of  the  simplest 
and  commonest  forms  of  ledged  door  and 
frame  is  illustrated  bv  inside  and  outside 


312 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


313 


Fig.  1021.  Fig.  1022.  Fig.  1023.       Fig.  1024.  Fig.  1025.       Fig.  1026. 

Fig.  1021. — Front  of  Framed  and  Braced  Door.     Fig.  1022. — Section  through  Stile.     Fig.  1023. — Back 
of  Ledged  and  Braced  Door.         Fig.  1024. — Vertical  Section  through  Door.         Fig.  1025. — Front  of 
Ledged  and  Braced  Door.     Fig.  1026. — Elevation  of  Shutting  Edge. 


elevations  and  edge  view  at  Figs.  1027  to 
1029.  The  frame  is  quite  square  without  any 
beads  and  stops,  the  door  overhanging  and 
shutting  against  the  outer  faces  of  the  jambs. 
Only  a  few  chief  points  in  the  preparing, 
making,  and  fixing  of  the  frame  will  here 
be  explained,  because  the  general  processes 
involved  in  the  making  are  somewhat 
similar,  although  perhaps  not  requiring 
the  same  degree  of  accuracy  as  for  more  im- 
portant doors  and  frames.  The  leading 
operations  in  the  making  of  these  will  be 
described  fully  in  the  examples  that  will 
follow.  The  head  and  jambs  of  the  frame 
are  generally  made  of  scantling  3  in.  by 
2  in.  or  more.  This  should  be  of  good  red 
deal  for  external  work,  and  when  there  is  a 
wood  sill  it  should  be  of  English  oak.  The 
three  or  four  pieces  composing  the  frame  are 
planed  up,  the  jambs  or  posts  are  then  set 
out  from  the  rod  marking  the  shoulders 
and  tenons  at  the  top  end,  and  a  scribe  line 
is  drawn  at  the  bottom  for  fitting  to  the 
stone  sill ;  or  if  the  sill  is  of  wood  the  posts 
are  marked  for  tenons.    The  head  is  set 

14 


Fig  1027. 


Fig.  1028. 


Fig.  1029. 


Fig.  1027. — External  Elevation  of  Ledged  Door  and 
Frame.  Fig.  1028. — Vertical  Section.  Fig. 
1029. — Inside  Elevation, 


314 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


out  for  either  a  close  or  a  slot  mortice  ;  the 
latter  is  the  one  shown  in  this  example 
(Fig.  1030).  As  there  are  no  stops  or  beads 
to  work  on  the  frame,  the  setting  out  is 


Fig.  1030. — Slot  Mortice  and  Tenon  Joint  between 
Head  and  Jamb. 

very  simple.  After  the  jambs  are  made  and 
fitted,  they  should  be  draw -bored  for  draw- 
pinning  ;  the  process  is  often  termed  draw- 
boring.  This  is  done  by  boring  through  the 
cheeks  of  the  mortice  as  indicated  at  Fig. 
1031,  using  a  J-in.  or  f-in.  auger.  The 
shoulders  of  the  joint  are  then  put  together. 


Fig.  1031. — Method  of  Boring  for  Draw-pinning. 


and  a  marking  awl  (or  pricker)  is  used  in  the 
hole  of  the  cheek  to  make  a  mark  in  the  tenon 
as  indicated  at  a  (Fig.  1031),  where  it  will 
be  seen  that  this  mark  is  made  against  the 


side  of  the  hole  of  the  cheek  and  on  a  line 
about  45  degrees  from  the  centre.  This 
mark  a  shows  the  centre  for  the  hole  to  be 
bored  in  the  tenon.  If  the  holes  in  the 
cheeks  and  the  tenon  are  bored  thus,  the 
pin,  when  driven  in,  tends  to  draw  together 
the  shoulders  of  the  joint  and  also  the  side 
of  the  tenon  against  the  end  of  the  mortice. 
Another  method  largely  adopted,  but  not 
so  good,  is  to  cramp  the  joints  together  ; 
then  at  one  operation  bore  through  cheeks 
and  tenon,  and  drive  in  the  prepared  pin. 
In  very  common  door  frames  a  couple  of 
3-in.  or  4-in.  nails  are  driven  obliquely 
into  the  top  of  the  frame-head,  the  nails 
passing  into  the  tenon  and  shoulders. 
Usually  a  piece  of  wood  is  nailed  across  the 
lower  part  of  the  jambs  so  as  to  keep  them 
parallel  until  the  frame  is  fixed  across  in  its 
place.    Before  being  put  together,  the  parts 


Fig.  1032. — Detail  of  Hook  and  Plate  Hinge. 

of  the  joints  are  generally  painted,  which, 
for  exposure  to  the  weather,  is  considered 
more  durable  than  gluing. 

Fixing-  the  Door  Frame. 

This  class  of  door  frame  is  largely  used 
for  outbuildings,  and  when  these  are  built 
of  brick  or  stone,  the  frame  is  usually  placed 
in  its  position  and  held  by  one  or  two  raking 
struts  so  as  to  keep  it  plumb  and  firm  until 
the  brickwork  or  masonry  is  built  around 
it.  Usually  the  head-piece  is  made  to  pro- 
ject a  few  inches  beyond  the  posts,  as  in- 
dicated in  the  illustrations.  These  projec- 
tions are  called  "  horns "  and  are  useful 
for  bonding  into  the  brickwork.  When 
there  is  a  wood  sill  it  is  similarly  shaped. 
As  the  brickwork  is  built  up,  two  or  three 
wood  bricks  are  built  in  as  a  joint  between 
two  courses.  These  wood  bricks  may  be 
pieces  of  3  in.  by  4  in.  by  6  in.  or  9  in.  long, 
or  pieces  about  J  in.  thick,  4  in.  wide,  and 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


315 


4  in.  to  9  in.  long.  These  are  built  in  the 
brickwork  against  the  frame,  which  is  nailed 
to  them. 

Preparing-  the  Ledged  Door. 

The  vertical  boards  for  the  door  vary 
from  3  in.  to  7  in.  in  width,  the  narrower 


then  beaded,  or  the  meeting  edges  are  cham- 
fered to  form  a  V  joint.  (See  page  62,  Fig. 
263.)  The  ledges  are  next  prepared  and 
chamfered  as  shown  in  Figs.  1028  and  1029. 
Two  pieces  of  quartering  are  laid  across  the 
bench,  and  the  boards  are  placed  face  down- 
wards on  these.    The  cramp  is  apphed, 


being  better,  as  when  shrinkage  occurs 
there  is  less  space  between  the  joints  with 
the  narrower  boards.  The  thickness  varies 
from  f  in.  to  IJ  in.  The  boards  are  faced 
up,  thicknessed,  and  jointed  ;  then  ploughed 
and  tongued,  or  more  frequently  grooved 
and  tongued.    One  edge  of  each  board  is 


and  then  lines  are  squared  across  to  show 
the  position  of  the  ledges,  the  cramp  being 
appHed  near  each  ledge,  so  as  to  keep  the 
joints  of  the  boards  close,  and  these  are 
secured  by  a  few  nails  or  preferably  screws. 
The  door  is  now  turned  over  face  side  up 
and  lined  out  for  nailing.    Care  is  taken  to 


316 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


space  the  nails  in  diagonal  lines  so  as  not 
to  split  either  boarding  or  ledges.  A  piece 
of  waste  wood  is  placed  under  each  ledge 
in  turn  during  nailing.    Wrought-iron  nails 


Fig.  1036. — Joint  between  Sill  and  Post. 

are  often  used  sufficiently  long  to  project 
beyond  the  face  of  the  ledges  after  being 
punched  in  from  the  face.  The  points  of 
these  nails  penetrate  into  the  piece  of  waste 
wood  so  as  to  prevent  splitting  pieces  out 
of  the  ledges.    The  door  is  again  turned 


Fig.  1037. — Joint  between  Head  and  Post. 


over,  and  the  points  of  the  nails  are  bent 
over  by  means  of  the  nail  punch  and 
hammer,  and  in  the  form  of  a  hook.  They 
are  then  driven  slightly  below  the  surface  by 


the  hammer  and  punch  ;  thus  the  nails  are 
clenched.  In  doing  this  the  punch  must 
be  held  slanting  so  as  not  to  drive  the  nails 
back.  The  top  and  bottom  of  the  door 
should  be  sawn  square  and  planed. 

Hang^ing  the  Door. 

This  door  is  cut  off  level  at  the  bottom, 
and  it  does  not  require  fitting  between  the 


Fig.  1038.— Alternative  Method  of  Joining  Head 
and  Post. 

jambs.  The  hinges  shown  are  of  the  hook 
and  plate  pattern,  a  detail  of  which  is  given 
at  Fig.  1032.  These  are  screwed  on  in  the 
positions  illustrated,  care  being  taken  to 
keep  an  equal  margin  of  the  lap  of  the  door 
over  the  frame. 


Fig.  1039.— Joint  between  Brace  and  Ledge. 

Ledg^ed  and  Braced  Door  and 
Frame. 

A  door  and  frame  of  this  description  is 
shown  by  Figs.  1033  to  1039.  The  chief 
points  in  the  preparing  and  fixing  of  this 
door  and  frame  will  now  be  explained.  It 
will  be  seen  from  the  figures  that  the  frame 
is  beaded  round  the  inner  edge,  and  that 
the  beaded  stops  are  nailed  on. 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


317 


Preparing  the  Door  Frame. 

All  the  stuff  should  be  carefully  planed  up 
out  of  winding  and  square,  and  the  oak 
sill  is  slightly  splayed.  Place  the  two  posts 
face  sides  together  and  face  edges  out- 
wards, as  indicated  at  Fig.   1040.  Then 


setting  out  for  the  shoulder  as  well  as  the 
gauging  should  be  completed  as  shown  at 
Fig.  1041.  The  rod  should  be  appUed  and 
the  frame  head  set  out  for  mortising  as 
shown  at  Figs.  1042  and  1043.  The  former 
shows  the  setting  out  on  the  soffit  of  the 
head  and  the  latter  the  top  side  of  the  head, 


I 


Fig.  1040.-— Setting  Out  Posts  for  Shoulders. 


Fig.  1045.— Mortice  and  Tenon 
Joint  Wedged. 


Fig.  1041.— Setting  Out  Post  for  Tenon. 

— .//  // 


>  -  - 

_  _  _  _  J,^,  — 

-  7' 

Fig.  1042.— Setting  Out  on  Soffit    Fig.  1043.— Setting  Out  on  Top     Fig.  1046.— Draw-boring  Mortice 
of  Head.  of  Head.  and  Tenon. 


Fig.  1044.— Mitering  Bead. 

apply  the  rod  and  mark  off  for  the  shoulders 
at  top  and  bottom.  The  splay  for  the  sill 
(Fig.  1036)  must  be  allowed  for  as  shown 
at  A  (Fig.  1040).  The  'inner  shoulder  d 
must  be  carried  beyond  the  outer  one  c, 
so  as  to  allow  for  the  bead  on  the  inner  edges 
of  the  frame  (Figs.  1037  and  1038).  The 


in  which  allowance  is  made  for  the  necessary 
wedging  if  the  mortices  are  to  be  closed. 
Next  the  mortices  are  made  and  the  tenons 
cut.  The  shoulder  must  not  be  cut  until 
the  beading  is  done.  The  bead  should  now 
be  worked  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  posts 
and  the  head.  The  shoulders  should  be 
cut,  and  the  part  between  the  head  and 
mortice  sawn  out  and  pared  as  shown  at 
A  (Fig.  1044)  ;  then  with  a  mitre  template 
and  chisel  form  the  mitre  as  indicated. 
The  beads  at  the  top  of  the  post  should  also 
be  mitred  as  shown  at  b  (Fig.  1037).  The 
joints  should  be  fitted,  painted,  cramped  to- 
gether, and  wedged  as  shown  at  Fig.  1045. 
If  the  joint  is  draw-bored  and  pinned,  the 
holes  should  be  made  on  the  cheeks  of  the 
mortice  as  indicated  by  the  circle  c  (Fig. 


318 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


1046),  and  the  hole  in  the  tenon  as  indi- 
cated by  the  circle  d,  partly  shown  by 
dotted  line.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
end  of  the  tenon  (Fig.  1046)  projects  slightly 
and  is  also  chamfered  off.  This  allows  the 
tenon  to  enter  the  mortice  easily,  and  the 
projection  allows  a  little  extra  strength  be- 
hind the  pin.  The  projecting  part  is  gener- 
ally sawn  off  at  the  time  of  fixing. 

Forming:  the  Stops. 

The  stops  are  prepared  by  facing  up  a 
board,  shooting  the  edge,  setting  a  gauge 


Fig,  1047. — Preparing  Beaded  Stop. 

to  the  breadth  of  the  stop,  and  gauging  as 
shown  at  a  (Fig.  1047).  A  J-in.  or  f-in. 
bead  is  next  planed  along  the  edge,  forming 
as  shown.  A  saw-cut  is  now  made  just  out- 
side the  gauge  Hne  (Fig.  1047),  then  the 
edge  is  planed  just  down  to  the  line.  Any 
projection  left  beyond  the  quirk,  as  indi- 
cated at  B  (Fig.  1047),  is  removed  by  planing, 
and  thus  the  stop  is  brought  to  thickness  as 
shown  at  Fig.  1048.  The  stops  are  next 
mitred  at  each  corner  of  the  head,  as  indi- 
cated at  c  and  d  (Fig.  1037).  These  may 
be  painted  at  the  back  and  nailed  on  at  the 


Fig.  1048.— Preparing  Beaded  Stop. 

bench,  or  just  tacked  on  temporarily  and 
finally  fixed  at  the  time  of  hinging  the  door. 
These  door  frames  are  usually  built  in  the 
walls  as  explained  on  p.  314  in  describing 
the  previous  example.  The  making  of  this 
door  would  be  a  somewhat  similar  process 
to  making  the  ledged  door,  except  that 
braces  are  introduced  to  prevent  the  door 
dropping  out  of  square.    The  method  of 


joining  the  braces  to  the  ledges  is  shown 
clearly  at  Fig.  1039.  Of  course,  the  braces 
are  nailed  to  the  boards.  This  door  is 
hung  with  cross-garnet  hinges,  also  known 
as  T  hinges.  A  rim  lock  and  staple  are 
shown.  The  methods  of  fitting  and  fixing 
these  will  be  explained  in  a  subsequent 
example. 

Framed  and  Braced  Door  and 
Frame. 

The  general  details  of  a  door  and  frame 
of  this  description  are  shown  at  Figs.  1049 
to  1061.  All  the  chief  measurements  are 
figured  on  the  illustrations.  The  chief 
points  to  notice  in  preparing  the  frame  are 
that  it  is  rebated  out  of  the  solid,  and  beaded 
inside  and  outside,  this  involving  more  care 
in  setting  out.  At  a  in  Fig.  1057  part  of  the 
rod  is  represented,  and  at  b  the  top  part 
of  a  post  is  shown  raised  above,  and  the 
projectors  show  the  relation  of  the  rod  to 
the  setting  out  on  the  post.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  the  shoulder  lines  are  not  in  the 
same  plane,  and  each  is  marked  long  enough 
to  fit  against  the  quirks  of  the  beads  in  the 
heads  of  the  frame.  Fig.  1058  shows  the 
top  part  of  the  post  gauged  for  the  rebate, 
and  with  the  tenon  cut.  The  depth  of  the 
rebate  is  usually  J  in.  to  f  in.  The  head 
should  next  be  set  out  from  the  rod.  This 
is  shown  at  Fig.  1060  ;  a  and  h  indicating 
the  mitre  lines  for  the  beads. 

Rebating-  the  Frame. 

The  next  operation  would  be  the  rebating, 
which  may  be  done  in  several  ways.  Only 
one  will  be  explained  here,  and  other  methods 
will  be  treated  of  in  other  examples.  With  a 
plough  fitted  with  a  f-in.  or  J-in.  iron,  make 
a  groove  on  the  face  of  the  post,  as  indicated 
at  A  (Fig.  1059).  Next  chisel  away  the 
greater  part  of  the  waste,  using  a  mallet  ; 
then  the  rebate  may  be  finished  with  a  rebate 
plane  and  a  trying  and  smoothing  plane. 
But  a  quicker  and  better  result  can  be  ob- 
tained by  using  a  panel  plane,  if  one  is 
available,  than  by  using  a  rebate  plane  and 
trying  plane.  The  beads  should  next  be 
stuck.  Usual  sizes  are  :  for  the  inside,  J  in. 
to  I  in.  ;  for  the  outside,  J  in.  to  f  in. 

In  fitting  the  tenon  it  will  be  seen  (Fig. 
1056)  that  this  projects  both  into  the  rebate 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


319 


and  stop  part  of  the  head,  and  therefore  to 
save  making  two  tenons  (which  will  be  shown 
in  another  example)  it  is  pared  back  flush 
with  the  rebate  as  shown  at  a  (Fig.  1056). 
In  this  case  the  beads  are  mitred  only  J  in. 


Fig.  1049. 

Fig.  1049.— Joint  at  A  (Fig.  1062),  showing  Bare- 
faced Double  Tenons.  Fig.  1050. — Joint 
at  B  (Fig.  1062)  showing  Barefaced  Double 
Tenons.       Fig.  1051.— Joint  at  C  (Fig.  1062). 

or  so  in,  and  then  the  parts  c  and  d  are 
cut  so  as  to  butt  against  the  corresponding 
parts  on  the  head,  as  shown  at  c  and  d  (Fig. 
1056).  The  wedging  up,  finishing,  and 
fixing  of  this  door  frame  would  be  done  in 
the  same  way  as  explained  for  previous  exam- 
ples. Tne  bottom  of  the  post  is  shown  at  Fig. 
1055  with  a  square  metal  dowel  partly 
inserted,  the  other  portion  projecting  to  be 
received  by  a  hole  cut  in  the  stone  sill. 


Making-  the  Door. 

The  chief  features  to  be  noticed  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  door  will  now  be  given. 
Having  planed  up  the  stuff  out  of  winding, 
and  to  a  thickness  and  breadth  for  the  fram- 
ing of  the  door,  the  stiles  would  be  set  out 
from  the  rod  for  the  mortices.  These  would 
have  to  correspond  with  the  tenons  as 
shown  at  Figs.  1049  to  1051,  where  they  are 
shown  notched  at  a  and  b,  because  of  the 
small  rebates  made  to  receive  the  short 
tenons  of  the  braces.  If  the  braces  were  cut 
in  nearly  square,  this  would  not  be  neces- 
sary.   The  stiles  and  top  rails  are  ploughed 


Fig.  1052.— Joints  of  Boarding  Grooved  and 
Tongued  and  Beaded. 


Fig.  1053. 


-Joints  of  Boarding  when  Rebated  and 
Beaded. 


Fig.  1054. — Joints  of  Boarding  when  Ploughed 
and  Tongued,  and  showing  a  V-joint  on  each 
side. 

to  receive  tongues  on  the  boarding  as  shown. 
The  bottom  and  middle  rails  have  double 
tenons  with  shoulders  on  one  side  only, 
known  as  barefaced  tenons.  This  is  to  allow 
the  boarding  to  pass  down  in  front  of  them, 
and  also  to  be  nailed  to  them.  The  in- 
side of  the  framing  is  stop -chamfered  as 
shown  at  Fig.  1064.  The  boarding  may  be 
of  any  of  the  forms  shown  by  Figs.  1052, 
1053,  or  1054,  or  a  V-joint  may  replace  the 
beads  shown  at  Fig.  1052.  The  boarding 
should  be  fitted  in  accurately  before  wedging 
up  the  framing.  After  this  it  should  be 
nailed  to  the  bottom  and  middle  rails.  Other 
particulars    of    preparing    the  mortices, 


320 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


fiitting,  wedging  up,  finishing,  etc.,  being 
common  to  many  examples  of  joiners'  work, 
will  be  fully  treated  in  the  cases  which  follow. 


Fig.  1055.— Bottom  of  Door  Post  with  Metal 
Dowel  for  Fixing  to  Stone  Sill. 


Fig.  1056. — Joint  between  Post  and  Head  of 
Frame. 


Fig.  1057.— Showing  Top  of  Post  Set  Out  from 
Rod. 


Hanging  and  Fastening. 

This  form  of  door  would  be  hung  with 
4-in.  to  5-in.  wrought  butt  hinges, 
the  lower  one  being  fixed  about  11  in.  from 


the  bottom,  so  that  the  screws  should  noL 
be  too  near  a  tenon,  the  top  butt  being 
6  in.  or  7  in.  down.  Doors  of  this  kind 
are  often  hung  with  three  butts,  the  third 


Fig.  1059. — Post  Ploughed  for  Rebate  shown  at 
A  ;  Rebate  completed  shown  at  B. 


Fig.  1060.— One  End  of  Head  of  Frame  Set  Out. 


Fig.  1061.— One  End  of  Head  of  Frame 
completed. 


being  central.  Heavier  doors  of  this  class 
are  usually  hung  with  some  form  of  hook 
and  strap  hinges,  of  which  there  are  various 
kinds.  Fastenings  for  this  door  are  :  A 
Norfolk  latch,  and  a  dead  lock,  which  is  a  lock 
without  a  spindle  and  handles. 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


321 


322 


CAKPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Larg:e  Framed  and  Braced  Door. 

The  construction  of  a  single  framed  and 
braced  door,  such  as  is  often  used  for  stables, 
archway  entrances,  etc.,  is  shown  in  Figs. 
1065  to  1067.  The  finished  dimensions  are : 
Door,  8  ft.   high  and  6  ft.  wide  ;  stiles, 


6  in.  by  2J  in.  ;  top  rail,  6|  in.  by  2J  in.  ; 
bottom  rail,  10|  in.  by  2J  in.  ;  middle  rail, 
lOJ  in.  by  If  in.  ;  boarding,  1 J  in.  ;  braces, 
6  in.  by  If  in.  The  joints  connecting  the 
stiles  and  rails  are  shown  by  Figs.  1068  and 
10605  At  the  connection  of  the  middle  rail 
and  stile  barefaced  tenons  are  shown.  The 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


323 


bottom  and  top  rails  finish  flush  with  the 
outside  of  the  stiles,  and  the  joint  between 
these  and  the  boards  forming  the  panel  is 
broken  by  means  of  a  bead,  as  shown  by 


Fig.  1068.— Joints  between  Rails  and  Stiles. 

Fig.  1070.  The  plough  groove  is  so  arranged 
as  to  have  one  side  of  it  in  the  same  plane  as 
the  mortices.  The  braces  butt  against  the  rail 
and  stile  at  their  lower  ends,  and  their  upper 


Fig.  1069. — Joint  between  Brace  and  Rail. 

ends  are  lapped  and  joggled  in  as  illustrated 
at  the  bottom  of  Fig.  1069.  It  is  frequently 
considered  sufficient  merely  to  butt  the  ends 
of  these  braces  as  described,  but  sometimes 


it  is  preferred  to  form  short  barefaced  stub 
tenons  on  the  lower  ends  of  the  braces,  and 
let  these  fit  into  corresponding  mortices  in  the 
rails  and  stiles.    Strong  hinges  are  necessary 


Fig.  1070.— Conventional  Detail  of  Corner  of 
Door  at  A,  B,  C  (Fig.  1065). 


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Fig.  1071.— Outside  Elevation  of  Stable  Doors. 


Fig.  1072. — Horizontal  Section  of  Stable  Doors. 

for  this  door.  These  may  be  specially  made 
by  a  good  smith,  but  excellent  hinges  for  the 
purpose  are  ColHnge's  patent. 


324 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Frameless  Stable  Doors. 

In  many  country  districts — particularly 
in  certain  parts  of  Shropshire — wood  frames 
to  stable  doors  are  often  dispensed  with, 
it  being  urged  against  them  that  they  are 
apt  to  become  loose,  and  that  rot  is  apt  to 


the  doors.  The  exterior  and  interior  jambs 
have  rounded  bull-nosed  bricks,  to  prevent 
injury  to  the  horses  passing  in  and  out  of  the 
doorway.  Fig.  1078  shows  the  method  used 
for  door  jambs  where  9-in.  walls  are  erected, 
the  14-in.  jambs  being  formed  as  a  pier,  and 
then  reduced  to  the  9  in.    The  doors  should 


Fig.  1073.— Vertical 
Section  of  Stable 
Doors. 


Fig.  1074. — Inside  Elevation  of  Stable 
Doors. 


Fig.  1075.— Part  Exterior  Ele- 
vation showing  Central  Pier 
where  Doors  Meet. 


Fig.  1076.— Plan  of  Pier,  etc. 
(Fig.  1075). 


Fig.  1077.— Enlarged  Detail 
Plan  of  Hook  Stone. 


Fig.  1078.— Horizontal  Section  of 
14-in.  Brick  Pier  and  Jamb. 


set  in  towards  the  bottom  when  the  frame  is 
let  into  the  step.  Figs.  1071  to  1078  show 
frameless  doors,  Fig.  1071  being  the  front 
elevation  of  a  door  in  two  leaves.  The 
hinge-hooks  and  latch-hooks  are  leaded  in 
the  stone  and  built  in  the  brick  jambs  as 
the  work  proceeds.  Figs.  1072  and  1073 
show  the  brick  jambs  rebated  to  receive 


be  of  good  sound  and  dry  red  deal,  framed, 
ledged,  and  braced  as  shown.  The  two 
stiles  and  the  top  rail  are  of  equal  thick- 
ness— namely,  2J  in.  ;  the  other  rails  and 
braces  are  only  IJ  in.,  and  are  flush  on  the 
rear  side  of  the  framing,  and  so  arranged  that 
the  |-in.  sheeting  when  nailed  to  them  is 
flush  on  the  face  side.    The  upper  ends  aud 


.1  ^ 

■H  Q 

2 


ba  03 
rT.  xn. 


outside  edge  of  the  sheeting  are  tongued  into 
a  groove  running  round  the  framing.  All 
joints  in  these  doors  should  be  painted,  and 
not  glued  ;  and  this  remark  applies  also  to 
all  the  edges  and  tongues  in  the  joints  of 


the  sheeting.  The  wrought-iron  straps  and 
latches  should  be  strong,  and  secured  with 
bolts  and  nuts.  Take  care  that  the  hinges 
and  hooks  are  so  fixed  that  the  doors  will 
open  and  lie  back  against  the  face  of  the  wall. 


326 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Larg-e  Framed  and  Braced  Sliding 
Door. 

Sliding  doors  and  gates  of  this  description 
are  often  used  for  coach-houses,  entrances 
to  factory  yards,  and  similar  purposes. 
They  have  no  frame,  the  opening  being 
formed  by  the  brickwork  and  a  wooden 
lintel,  which  is  often  flitched  as  shown 
(Fig.  1081).  The  general  construction  would 
be  similar  to  the  last  example  (Fig.  1065) , 
except,  as  will  be  noticed,  the  rails  are  of  the 


Fig.  108 3. —Conventional  View  of  Upper  Rail, 
Wheel,  and  Strap  (Fig.  1082). 


same  thickness  as  the  stiles,  although  some- 
times the  bottom  rail  may  be  thinner,  so  as 
to  allow  the  boarding  to  extend  down ;  also 
the  middle  rail  may  be  treated  in  the  same 
way.  To  prevent  any  chance  of  racking, 
four  braces  are  introduced.  The  important 
parts  to  notice  are  :  To  facihtate  shding,  a 
rail  shown  in  section  by  Fig.  1084  has  screws 
inserted  at  intervals  in  the  under  side.  A 
groove  is  cut  into  the  stone  floor  to  the 
shape  shown,  the  rail  is  then  placed  in  posi- 
tion, and  molten  lead  is  run  in.  Reference 
to  Figs.  1079,  1081,  and  1084  shows  that  the 
door  does  not  touch  the  ground  ;  therefore  to 
enable  the  rail  to  take  some  of  the  weight  a 
couple  of  grooved  wheels  are  fixed  to  the 
door,  the  axles  are  cast  on  the  solid,  and  their 


ends  work  in  slots  cut  in  the  iron  boxes. 
Fig.  1085  shows  a  sectional  view  of  one  of 
these  boxes  and  wheels.  To  fix  them, 
sockets  should  be  cut  to  the  depth  of  a  box  ; 
four  stout  screws  will  hold  each  in  position. 

Preparing  Joiners'  Work  principally 
by  Hand. 

The  following  particulars  treat  of  some 
of  the  most  usual  methods  adopted  by 
joiners  in  the  cutting  out,  planing  up,  set- 
ting out,  and  finishing  at  the  bench,  doors, 
panelled  framing,  and  bench  work  gener- 
ally.   After  setting  out  the  rod,  careful  note 


Fig.  1084.— Vertical 
Section  through  Lower 
Rail,  Wheel  and  Box. 

must  be  taken  of  the  number  of  pieces 
required,  together  with  their  sizes.  When 
deaHng  with  a  large  piece  of  framing,  it  is 
well  to  write  down  these  particulars.  The 
stuff  should  next  be  carefully  selected  and 
lined  out  for  the  various  pieces.  Although 
this  may  seem  a  simple  matter,  it  often  re- 
quires a  great  deal  of  judgment.  So  much 
is  this  a  fact  that,  in  large  shops,  a  leading 
hand  or  deputy  foreman  is  appointed  speci- 
ally for  this  work,  an  arrangement  that  is 
undoubtedly  advantageous  to  the  firm.  The 
stuff  should  next  be  cut  down  the  grain  with 
a  rip  saw,  and  across  the  grain  with  a  panel 
or  hand  saw. 

Trying  Up. — Most  joiners,  before  putting 
a  plane  on  timber,  brush  the  latter  with  a 
little  wire  brush  kept  on  the  bench  for  the 
purpose.    This  removes  all  the  grit  from 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


327 


the  beard  of  the  wood,  and  prevents  the 
plane-iron  getting  notched.  Before  planing, 
if  there  is  a  black  end,  cut  it  off  or  remove 
with  a  chisel  the  arris  or  edge  from  the  end 
at  which  a  start  will  be  made,  as  indicated 
at  Fig.  1086  ;  this  will  obviate  notching  the 
irons  with  dirt  brought,  perhaps,  from  the 
timber  perch.  In  executing  all  framed  work 
the  trying  up  is  the  most  important  process. 
Having  brushed  away  the  grit,  test  for 
winding.  Use  a  pair  of  boning  or  winding 
strips  ;  these  are  two  pieces  of  stuff  about 
12  in.  long,  2  in.  wide,  and  J  in.  thick  ;  place 
one  on  each  end  of  the  stile  as  it  lies  on  the 
bench.  Look  along  the  top  edges  of  these 
as  indicated  at  Fig.  1086,  and  thus  discover 


continuing  the  tried-up  mark  on  this  also, 
as  shown  on  Fig.  1087.  Note  that  these 
tried-up  edges  and  faces  must  always  be  used 
to  gauge  and  to  square  from.  To  ascertain 
whether  the  edge  is  shot  straight,  use  a  long 
straight-edge,  or  lift  the  end  of  the  stile  near- 
est the  worker  to  the  level  of  one  of  the  eyes, 
closing  the  other,  when  any  inequality  will 
be  seen  along  the  edge  and  must  be  planed 
off  accordingly.  Now  gauge  the  stuff  to 
breadth  along  its  whole  length,  plane  off 
down  to  the  gauge  mark  (which  must  be  left 
on),  and  put  aside.  Serve  all  the  rest  of 
the  pieces  in  the  same  way,  altering  the 
gauge,  of  course,  for  the  wider  or  narrower 
pieces.    The  stuff  can  now  be  gauged  and 


Fig.  1086.— Application  of  Winding  Strips, 


Fig.  1087. — Face  and  Face  Edge  Marks. 


how  much  the  timber  twists  or  is  in  winding. 
A  practical  joiner  can  test  the  stuff  out  of 
winding  by  the  eye  alone,  or,  if  the  stuff  is 
very  long,  by  laying  his  jack-  and  trying- 
plane  at  either  end  and  boning  from  them. 
Take  off  the  highest  parts  with  the  jack- 
plane,  but  do  not  scoop  thick  shavings  off, 
or  the  framing  will  be  too  thin.  Always 
leave  from  the  jack-plane  what  a  joiner  calls 
a  witness  mark — that  is,  the  faintest  impres- 
sion of  the  weather  stain  or  saw — before 
using  the  trying-plane.  It  is  sometimes  well 
to  leave  these  marks  showing  after  the  trying- 
plane,  to  indicate  that  the  stuff  has  not  been 
planed  too  much.  The  trying-plane  must  be 
used  until  both  the  top  edges  of  the  winding 
strips  are  parallel  with  each  other  ;  other- 
wise the  framing  will  twist  when  wedged 
up. 

Completing    the    Trying-up.-— VVhen  the 

face  is  true,  put  on  the  tried-up  mark  (see 
Fig.  1087),  jack  and  shoot  perfectly  straight, 
and  square  the  edge  with  the  trying-plane, 


planed  to  thickness,  or  the  back  faces  may 
be  simply  jacked  off  for  the  present. 

Setting    Out    Stiles. — One  of  the  stiles 
should  be  placed  on  the  rod,  and  the  proper 
positions  of  the  rails  should  be  pricked 
off  on  the  face  edge,  also  marking  off  spaces 
to  be  allowed  for  in  the  cases  of  plough 
grooves,   rebates,    beads,    mouldings,  etc. 
The  relation  between  the  rod  and  marking 
off  for  the  mortices  on  a  stile  for  a  top  rail 
is  clearly  indicated  by  the  projections  at 
A  and  B  (Fig.  1089).    Now  place  the  stiles 
in  pairs  with  their  face  sides  together,  and 
face  edges  outwards,  the  ends  of  the  lower 
one  resting  on  two  planes  on  a  couple  of 
blocks  as  shown  at  Fig.  1088.    This  facili- 
tates the  use  of  the  try  square,  as  indicated. 
Through  the  marks  pricked  off  from  the  rod^ 
square  down  the  edges  as  shown  at  Fig.  1088. 
When  there  are  muntins  they  may  be  placed 
on  the  stiles  and  squared  down  for  their 
shoulders  when  marking  on  the  edges  for 
the  stiles,  where  they  wiU  meet  the  edges 


328 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


of  the  rails  ;  this  is  clearly  shown  at  Fig. 
1088.     The  muntins  can  now  he  removed 


and  scribed  all  round  for  the  shoulders.  The 
setting  out  on  the  edges  for  the  mortices 
should  be  complete  as  shown  at  Fig.  1089  ; 


then  by  using  the  square  and  ticking  off  on 
the  back  arris,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted 
lines,  and  also  marking  off  about  J  in. 
or  f  in.  (according  to  the  size  of  the  work) 
for  wedging,  the  back  edges  should  be 
marked  for  the  mortices  as  indicated  at 
Fig.  1090. 

Setting  Out  Rails. — When  there  is  a  bottom 
rail,  a  middle  rail,  and  a  top  rail,  they  usually 
are  in  panel  framing,  all  of  one  length,  and 
therefore  the  distances  for  shoulders,  posi- 
tions for  mortices  and  muntins,  should  be 
pricked  off  from  the  rod.  The  three  rails 
can  now  be  placed  with  their  face  edges 
outward,  and  then  squared  down  as  shown 
at  Fig.  1091  at  one  operation.  The  lines 
6  and  g  are  for  shoulders,  a  and  h  for  haunch- 
ings,  d  and  e  for  mortices  for  the  muntins, 
and  c  and  /  positions  where  edges  of  munt- 
ins meet  the  rails,  the  distances  between 
each  pair  of  lines  being  -^^  in.  less  than  the 
depth  of  the  ploughed  groove,  which  usually 
ranges  from  about  |  in.  to  f  in.  The  setting 
out  (without  gauging)  of  the  top  rail  is 
shown  by  Fig.  1092,  of  the  middle  rail 
by  Fig.  1093,  and  of  the  bottom  rail  by 
Fig.  1094.  The  breadth  of  the  tenons  is 
next  set  out,  and  the  waste  parts  removed 
as  shown  at  Figs.  1095,  1096,  and  1097,  the 
cuts  along  the  haunch  Hues  a  and  h  (Figs. 
1095  and  1096)  being  made  with  a  bow  saw. 
Some  joiners  prefer  to  cut  through  the 
whole  breadth  of  the  rail,  and  use  the  parts 
between  the  tenons  for  wedges,  as  indicated 
at  Fig.  1099  Select  a  mortice  chisel  about 
one-third  the  thickness  of  the  stuff,  and  set 
the  teeth  of  a  mortice  gauge,  so  that  the 
chisel  just  sinks  between  the  points  (see  Fig. 
1098).  Adjust  the  gauge  stocks  so  that  the 
teeth  will  be  in  a  position  to  scribe  the 
mortice  in  the  desired  place,  which  usually 
is  in  the  centre  of  the  stuff  ;  but  there  are, 
of  course,  exceptions  to  this  rule.  All  the 
parts  for  mortices  and  tenons  should  now 
be  gauged,  taking  care  that  the  stock  of  the 
gauge  is  used  always  against  the  face  side  of 
the  stuff. 

Making  Mortice  and  Tenon  Joints. — The 

next  thing  is  to  mortise  the  stiles  with  a 
mortice  chisel  and  mallet.  The  mortices 
should  be  made  halfway  through  from  the 
back  edges  ;  then  the  stil-es  should  be  turned 
over  aiid  mortised  through  from  the  face 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


329 


Fig.  1089.— Setting  Out  for  Mortices  on  Face 
Edges  of  Stiles  :  A  shows  part  of  Rod. 


Fig.  1090.— Setting  Out  Mortices  on 
Back  Edge  of  Stiles  for  Middle 
Rail. 


Fig.  1091.— Setting  Out  on 
Face  Edge  of  Rails. 


Fig.  1092. —Top  Rail  Set  Out  for 
Shoulders,  Haunchings,  and  MuntinSr 


Fig.  1099.— Alternative 
Method  of  Preparing 
Tenons  and  Wedges. 


Fig.  1093.— Middle  Rail  Set  Out  for 
Shoulders,  Haunchings,  etc. 


Fig.  1100.— Shows 
Double  Tenons  Set  Out 
for  Mortices  for  Lock 
Rail. 


Fig.  1094.— Bottom  Rail  Set  Out 
for  Shoulders,  etc. 


m 


Figs.  1095,  1096,  and  1097.— One  End  of  each  Rail  with  Waste       Fig.  1098.— Method  of  Setting 


removed,  and  completely  Set  Out  ready  for  Tenon  Cutting. 


Mortice  Gauge  to  Chisel. 


330 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


edges.  The  wedging  should  be  done  care- 
fully from  the  back  edges.  Clean  out  these 
mortices  by  driving  the  core  through  from 
front  to  back  with  a  slip  of  hard  wood  called 
a  core-driver.  Clean  the  mortices  sparingly 
with  a  paring  chisel,  and  the  stiles  are  ready 
for  ploughing.  Now  mortise  the  top,  lock, 
and  bottom  rails.  These  mortices  should  go 
in  only  about  2  in.,  or  2 J  in.,  as  the  tenons 
of  the  muntins  are  only  stumped  in.  Clean 
these  mortices  out,  and  the  rails  will  then  be 
ready  for  ploughing.  For  cutting  tenons, 
put  one  of  the  rails  in  the  bench  screw,  tilted 
as  shown  in  Fig.  1101,  and  with  a  rip  saw 
cut  down  the  tenon  just  by  the  side  of 
the  gauge-mark,  leaving  half  of  it  visible. 
Do  not  force  the  saw,  but  work  it  freely, 
and  keep  it  parallel  with  the  gauge-mark, 
both  down  the  side  and  across  the  end. 
When  the  saw  is  down  about  3  in.,  take  out 
the  rail  and  serve  the  opposite  side  of  the 
tenon  in  the  same  way  for  about  the  same 
depth  ;  then,  screwing  the  rail  perfectly 
upright  in  the  screw,  connect  the  two  saw 
kerfs  by  nice  easy  strokes,  and  cut  down 
to  the  shoulder ;  serve  all  the  rails  and 
muntins  like  this.  The  two  outside  portions 
are  called  the  tenon  cheeks,  and  the  inner 
portion  the  tenon.  The  tenon  cheeks  must 
not  be  cut  off  until  later  on.  An  experi- 
enced man  can  cut  his  tenons  down  straight 
away.  With  a  plough-iron  of  the  proper 
size,  plough  from  the  tried-up  face  the  tried- 
up  edges  of  the  stiles  from  end  to  end,  also 
the  bottom  edge  of  top  rail,  both  edges  of 
the  middle  rail,  top  edge  of  bottom  rail,  and 
both  edges  of  top  and  bottom  muntins.  If 
the  plough  is  set  to  the  right  depth,  it  is  im- 
possible to  go  any  deeper.  The  shoulders 
can  now  be  cut  with  a  tenon  saw,  leaving 
half  the  scribe  line  as  when  cutting  the 
tenons,  also  under-cutting  them  the  least 
bit  so  that  the  joints  will  come  together  close 
on  the  face.  Having  cut  off  all  the  tenon 
cheeks,  if  the  rails  have  been  cut  through 
their  whole  breadth,  as  in  Fig.  1099,  prepare 
a  strip  of  wood  about  9  in.  long  and  about 
yV  ill-  narrower  than  the  depth  of  the 
plough  groove  ;  lay  this  on  the  shoulders 
just  cut,  and  mark  in  lead  pencil  across 
the  tenons  a  (Fig.  1099).  The  portions  thus 
marked  will  form  the  haunchings  to  fit  in  the 
grooves  (see  Fig.  1099).    Serve  all  the  rails 


only  like  this,  the  muntin  tenons  being  left 
from  the  plough.  Next  mark  out  the  tenons 
as  shown  in  Fig.  1099  ;  but  before  cutting  out 
the  portions  indicated  by  the  dimensions, 
mark  with  lead  pencil  as  many  wedges  as 
these  portions  will  allow,  as  shown,  and  cut 
them  down  ;  then,  in  cutting  along  the 
haunching  lines  with  a  bow  saw,  these 
wedges  will  fall  out,  and,  when  trimmed 
and  pointed,  can  be  utilised  for  wedging  up 
the  tenons,  and  will  be  the  exact  thickness 
necessary  to  fill  the  mortices.  Just  nip  the 
extreme  corner  off  each  tenon  with  a  chisel 
to  give  a  start  in  the  mortices,  and  put  the 
framing  temporarily  together,  and  let  it 
stand  while  the  panels  are  prepared.  It  might 


Fig  1101. — Method  of  Fixing  Rails  in  Screw  for 
starting  Saw  Kerf  of  Tenons. 

be  left  for  several  months  with  advantage, 
and,  if  kept  dry,  all  shrinkage  would  take 
place  while  all  the  shoulders  were  free.  On 
wedging  up,  it  would  be  thoroughly  seasoned, 
and  would  remain  a  good  job  throughout  its 
ordinary  life  as  a  door. 

Panels. — For  ordinary  work  panels  should 
be  made  from  sound  yellow  pine,  free  from 
knots  and  shakes.  Their  dimensions  can  be 
measured  from  the  framing.  Cut  them  out 
in  the  rough,  jack  them  over,  and  bend 
each  one  on  the  edge  of  the  bench.  If  there 
should  be  a  shake  it  will  betray  itself,  and 
for  a  first-class  job  the  panel  would  be  re- 
jected ;  for  commoner  work,  however, 
these  shakes  should  have  a  little  whiting 
and  glue  rubbed  in  with  a  hammer  and  al- 
lowed to  dry.  Now  try  up  the  face  and  shoot 
one  edge,  not  forgetting  to  put  on  the  tried- 
up  marks.  With  the  panel  gauge,  scribe  the 
finished  width,  which,  to  allow  for  swelhng, 
must  be  about  |  in.  less  on  each  side  than  the 
actual  width  when  finally  driven  home  into 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


331 


the  plough  grooves.  Square  and  cut  off  both 
ends,  allowing  the  J-in.  play  also.  Make  a 
mullet  (Fig.  1102)  from  any  odd  bit  of  stuff 
ploughed  with  the  iron  used  for  the  fram- 
ing. Slide  this  round  the  edge  of  each 
panel  as  it  lies  projecting  a  little  over  the 
edge  of  the  bench,  and  it  will  indicate  at 
once  any  place  that  will  be  tight  when  driven 
home,  and  which  must  be  eased  accordingly. 
The  panels  must  fit  the  mullet  without  bind- 
ing. With  a  sharp  smoothing  plane,  set  very 
fine,  smooth  up  both  sides,  and,  with  some 
fine  glasspaper  folded  on  a  cork  pad,  rub 
both  sides  across  the  grain  until  a  fine  level 
surface  is  acquired.  The  panels  may  be  put 
in  by  removing  one  stile  at  a  time  and 
gently  driving  them  home  with  the  hand. 
Gluing    and    Wedging-up    Doors  and 


squaring  rod  mentioned  below  is  not  so 
necessary  when  gluing  up  four-panel  doors 
as  for  skeleton  frames  and  doors  containing 
very  narrow  rails.  Carefully  note  that  the 
rails  are  in  their  correct  position,  which  can 
be  seen  by  the  marks  on  the  stiles  ;  the  rails 
can  be  regulated  to  these  by  a  blow  or  two 
on  their  outer  edge.  This  knocking  may  also 
be  necessary  to  close  the  shoulders  between 
the  rails  and  muntins.  Then,  dipping  the 
trimmed  and  pointed  wedges  in  the  glue, 
insert  them  just  tight.  It  is  then  usual 
to  drive  the  outer  wedge,  c  or  (Fig.  1103), 
most  at  first,  so  as  to  ensure  the  joints  of 
the  muntins  being  closed  ;  both  wedges 
c  and  a  are  afterwards  driven  to  hold  the 
tenon  and  mortice.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
give  the  muntins  a  knock  or  two   to  get 


Fig.  1102.— Mulleting  Panels. 


Framing. — This  is  a  two-handed  job,  and 
to  carry  it  through  the  services  of  a  mate 
on  the  other  side  of  the  bench  will  be  neces- 
sary. Clear  away  all  tools,  etc.,  lay  some 
scantling  across  the  bench,  place  the  door 
on  these  (see  Fig.  1103,  which  shows  the 
wedging  up  of  a  two-panel  door),  knock 
all  shoulders  about  3  in.  apart,  and  then, 
with  some  thin  hot  glue,  rub  the  haunch- 
ings,  shoulders,  and  tenons  with  the  brush. 
Also  brush  the  glue  in  the  mortices  from 
the  back  edge.  Turn  the  door  quickly 
and  serve  the  other  side  the  same  way. 
Knock  the  stiles  up  and  put  on  a  cramp, 
screwing  up  tight  until  all  shoulders  are  up. 
The  cramp  should  be  placed  in  the  centre 
of  the  middle  rail,  or,  better  still,  two 
cramps  should  be  in  use  one  on  either  side 
of  the  rail.  The  shoulders  of  the  rails  having 
been  cut  quite  square,  the  door  may  be 
wedged  up  so  that  the  shoulders  fit.  The 


them  in  their  exact  positions,  but  in  doing 
this  interpose  a  piece  of  wood  between  work 
and  hammer  to  avoid  bruises — a  precaution 
which  will  also  apply  in  knocking  up  the  stiles 
and  rails.  Also  have  waste  pieces  for  the 
cheeks  of  the  cramp  to  screw  against. 
Having  finished  wedging  up,  take  off  the 
cramp,  oil  the  tenon  saw  with  olive  oil 
(not  Hnseed),  and  cut  off  the  projecting 
ends  of  the  tenons  and  wedges.  When  the 
door  or  framing  has  stood  for  a  day  or  two 
it  will  be  ready  for  cleaning  off  in  the 
manner  described  below. 

Cleaning  Off. — When  ready  to  clean  off, 
lay  the  door  or  framing  on  the  bench,  and 
cut  and  nail  two  pieces  of  stuff  between  the 
horns  at  each  end,  so  as  to  keep  the  door  soHd 
for  planing.  Clean  the  superfluous  glue  from 
the  joints  with  a  chisel,  and  try,  smooth,  and 
glasspaper  the  face  side  first.  Now  set  the 
gauge  to  the  thickness  the  door  or  framing 


332 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


is  to  be,  which  is  the  finished  thickness,  and 
run  it  down  each  edge,  and  clean  ofi  the 


some  kinds  of  doors  and  framing  have  to 
be  treated  in  a  different  way  as  regards  the 


Fig.  1103. — Wedging  up  a  Two-panel  Door. 

other  side,  down  to  this  gauge  mark,  in 
the  same  way.  Of  course,  this  last  process 
of  gauging  is  unnecessary  if  all  the  stuff  is 
thickened  as  planed  ;  but  for  commoner 
work  the  method  described  is  often  adopted. 
Do  not  shoot  the  edges  or  cut  the  horns  off 
the  ends.  This  is  done  when  the  door  is 
fitted  and  hung  or  the  framing  fixed. 

Planting  Door  Mouldings. — To  plant  the 
mouldings,  get  a  length  of  ordinary  ogee 
mould,  see  that  it  is  quite  clean  ;  if  not, 
get  some  glasspaper  and  take  out  the  rough 
parts  ;  then  cut  a  mitre  at  one  end.  push 
it  gently  up  into  place,  mark  the  opposite 
end,  and  cut  that  mitre  to  it.  Lay  this  on 
the  framing  by  the  side  where  it  is  to  go,  and 
proceed  to  cut  the  rest  in  the  same  way. 
Note  that  these  pieces  will  all  be  the  dead 
length  from  shoulder  to  shoulder.  Now 
place  the  end  pieces  in  first,  and  then,  plac- 
ing one  of  the  side-piece  mitres  in  position, 
bend  the  moulding  over  the  fingers  and 
spring  it  into  position  against  the  bottom 
one.  When  this  is  pressed  and  bradded 
down,  both  mitres  will  press  home,  and 
good  mitres  will  be  the  result.  Serve  all  the 
mouldings  in  the  same  way,  and  then  brad 
in,  taking  care  to  keep  the  brads  well 
bevelled  from  the  worker,  or  the  panel  will 
be  spht  and  choked.  Now  drive  in  the 
brads  with  a  small  steel  punch,  and  the  door 
or  framing  is  completed.    As  already  stated, 


Fig.  1106.      Fig.  1107. 


Fig,  1104. — Half  Elevation  of  a  Battened  Framed 
Door  and  Solid  Frame  in  a  Partition  Wall. 
Fig.  1105.— Half  Horizontal  Section  (Fig.  1104). 
Fig.  1106. — Half  Elevation  of  a  Door,  Framed 
Square  out  of  Deal  Stuff,  with  Solid  Frame 
in  a  Partition  Wall.  Fig.  1107.  —  Half 
Horizontal  Section  (Fig  1106). 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


333 


panels  and  moulds,  but  they  are  all  con- 
structed in  the  same  way  as  regards  the 
framing. 

Four = panelled  Doors  and  Solid  Frames 
in  Partitions. 

Fig.  1104  is  a  half  elevation  and  Fig.  1105 
is  a  half  horizontal  section  of  a  battened 


5  in.  by  3  in.,  tried  up,  and  squared  on  three 
sides.  The  posts  and  head  are  mortised 
and  tenoned  together  as  represented  at 
Fig.  1108.  The  upper  part  of  the  post  a, 
above  the  head,  is  reduced  on  each  side  by 
about  J  in.,  as  shown,  thus  making  it  the 
same  thickness  as  the  bricknogging  or 
studding  of  the  partition.    Each  side  is 


Fig.  1108.  -Joint  between  Post  and  Head. 


Fig.  1110. 


Fig.  1111. 


Fig.  1109.— Joint  of  Middle  Rail 
and  Stile. 


Figs. 


1110  and  1111.— Details  of  Joints  between 
Post  and  Head  of  Frame. 


square-framed  door,  6  ft.  6  in.  high  by  2  ft. 
6  m.  wide,  with  solid  wrought  frame  and 
stops  A  nailed  on,  and  3-in.  by  IJ-in.  square 
and  splayed  architrave.  Doors  and  frames 
of  this  description  are  often  used  for 
attics  and  small  houses,  and  for  openings  in 
studded  or  bricknogged  partitions. 

The  Frame. — This  usually  forms  a  part 
of  the  partition,  and  is  made  of  stuff  about 


generally  finished  by  fixing  some  form  of 
plain  architrave,  as  shown  at  B  (Fig.  1105), 
which  projects  over  the  plastering  as  indi- 
cated. The  stop  A  is  square-edged  and 
nailed  on. 

The  Door. — This  is  frequently  made  out 
of  battens  7  in.  by  1 J  in.,  used  full  width  at 
the  bottom  and  middle  rails,  and  sawn  down 
the  centre  to  make  the  top  rails j  muntins^ 


334 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


335 


and  stiles.  The  finished  sizes  thus  usually 
come  :  Bottom  and  middle  rails,  6J  in. 
by  If  in.  ;  stiles,  top  rails,  and  muntins, 
3J  in.  by  If  in.,  the  panels  finishing  about 
f  in.  or  -{q  in.  thick.  The  bottom  and 
middle  rails  being  narrow,  it  is  usual  to 
have  only  one  tenon  ;  if  this  is  3  in.  or  3 J  in. 
wide  with  haunchings  on  each  side,  as  shown 
at  Figs.  1104  and  1109,  it  will,  as  a  rule,  be 
found  sufficient. 

Framed  Door. 

A  6-ft.  8-in.  by  2-ft.  8-in.  door,  framed 
up  out  of  deal  stuff,  namely,  9  in.  by  1 J  in., 
is  shown  at  Figs.  1106  and  1107  in  half 
elevation  and  horizontal  section. 

The  Frame. — This,  as  in  the  last  example, 
is  solid  ;  but  it  is  rebated  and  beaded.  It 
is  intended  that  the  frame  forms  a  direct 
portion  of  the  partition  without  jamb 
linings,  etc.  The  enlarged  details  at  Figs. 
1110  and  1111  will  make  the  construction 
of  the  joints,  beading,  etc.,  of  the  frame 
quite  clear.  The  architraves  are  shown 
by  the  detail  Fig.  1112,  as  fixing  on 
to  the  frame  and  covering  its  joint  with 
the  plastering.  Fig.  1113  shows  the 
skirting  finishing  against  the  architrave. 
The  door  being  framed  of  deal  stuff,  the 
finished  sizes  of  the  members  will  be  : 
Bottom  and  middle  rails,  8|  in.  by  1|  in. ; 
muntins,  top  rail,  and  stiles,  in.  by  If  in. 
(of  course,  the  thickness  might  vary  up  to 
2  in.  or  even  more).  The  tenons,  wedging, 
plough-grooves,  etc.,  are  indicated  by  the 
dotted  lines. 

Four = panelled  Moulded  Door,  with 
Jamb  Linings,  etc.,  in  a  4h  =  in.  Wall 
or  Studded  Partition. 

A  good  ordinary  door,  with  its  fitments, 
is  shown  in  elevation,  plan,  and  section  at 
Figs.  1114  to  1116.  The  construction  of  the 
joints  will  be  clearly  understood  by  refer- 
ence to  Fig.  1117,  and  sections  of  the  mould- 
ings in  the  panels  are  given  at  a  (Fig.  1118). 

Jambs,  Grounds,  etc. — Fig.  1119  illus- 
trates an  ordinary  form  of  plain  jamb 
linings,  which  are  grooved  and  tongued  to- 
gether as  represented.  They  are  made  out 
of  1-in.  to  IJ-in.  stuff,  sufficiently  wide  to 
project  on  each  side  of  the  post  about  J  in., 
the  amount  required  for  lathing  and  plaster- 


ing, or  for  plastering  only  in  the  case  of 
brickwork.  The  jamb  linings  are  fixed 
plumb  and  straight  by  packing  pieces,  or 


Fig-.  1117. — Conventional  View  of  Mortice  and 
Tenon  Joints  of  Door  (Fig.  1114). 


ii 

Fig.  1118.— Enlarged  Detail  of  C  at  Fig.  1115. 

wedges,  which  are  first  placed  between  the 
back  of  the  lining  and  the  posts  as  repre- 
sented at  B  (Fig.  1119),  and  then  naiUng 
through,  as  also  shown.  The  head  is  fixed 
in  a  similar  manner.    The  advantage  of 


336  CARPENTRY 


Fig.  1119. — Conventional  View  showing  Method 
of  Fixing  Jamb  Linings,  Grounds,  etc 


AND  JOINERY. 

using  wedges  is  that  the  jambs  can  be  ad- 
justed more  accurately  for  straightness. 
For  fixing  the  architraves,  grounds  are  fixed 


Fig.  1120.— Detail  of  Groove  and  Tongue  Joint 
at  E  (Fig.  1119). 


Fig.  1122. — Showing  an  Angle  of  Jambs  with 
Solid  Stops. 


to  the'^posts  and  head,  so  that  their  faces 
are  flush  with  the  edges  of  the  jamb,  as  in- 
dicated at  Fig.  1119.  These  grounds  are 
generally  splayed  at  the  back  edges  as  illus- 
trated, to  form  a  key  for  the  plastering.  In 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


HALF  TIMBERED  PORCH  AND  ENTRANCE  DOORWAY 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


337 


the  case  of  commoner  work,  instead  of  pre- 
paring and  fixing  grounds,  pieces  of  board, 
2  in.  or  3  in.  wide  and  1  ft.  or  so  long,  are 
fixed  at  intervals  of  12  in.  or  15  in.,  as  indi- 
cated at  H  and  d  (Fig.  1119).  This  example 
shows  the  stops  nailed  on.    Two  other  kinds 


Fig.  1123.— Taking  Width  of  Door  with  Two 
Rods. 

of  jamb  linings  are  represented  at  Figs.  1121 
and  1122.  The  form  at  Fig.  1121  has  a 
single  rebate  made  out  of  the  solid,  the  jamb 
and  head  being  grooved  and  tongued  to- 
gether as  shown.  A  rebate  on  each  side  is 
shown  at  Fig.  1122  ;  thus  a  solid  stop  is 


door  should  this  happen  to  be  a  little  out 
of  truth  ;  and  should  the  jamb-liningg  be 
fixed  out  of  truth — especially  when  the 
jambs  wind  one  way  and  the  door  the  other 
way — the  difference  is  intensified,  and  causes 
considerable  trouble  to  the  workman.  For 
the  sake  of  example,  suppose  a  door  6  ft.  8  in. 
by  2  ft.  8  in.  by  2  in.  thick,  prepared  for  a 
mortice  lock,  has  to  be  hung.  This  means 
that  one  end  of  the  middle  rail  has  four  tenons 
instead  of  two,  this  provision  being  necessary 
in  order  that  when  the  mortice  for  the  lock 
has  been  cut,  the  wedging  between  the  tenons 
shall  not  be  cut  away  ;  were  they  cut  away, 
there  would  be  nothing  to  hold  the  stile  to 
the  rail,  and  very  soon  the  stile  would  come 
away  from  the  shoulder.  If  it  has  not  pre- 
viously been  arbitrarily  decided  to  which 
jamb  the  door  has  to  be  hung,  it  should  be 
so  arranged  that  the  door,  when  slightly 
open,  will  hide  most  of  the  interior  of  the 
room.  When  a  doorway  is  arranged  near 
the  centre  of  one  side  of  a  room,  it  is  not 


Fig.  1124. — Door  in  Position  for  Shooting  Edge. 


formed  as  illustrated.  The  grooving  and 
tongueing  of  the  jambs  and  head  are  of  a 
more  complicated  character. 

Hanging:  Ordinary  Four = panel  Door. 

The  method  of  hanging  an  ordinary  four- 
panel  door  will  now  be  described.  The 
frames  or  jambs  to  which  doors  are  hung 
are  either  rebated  out  of  the  solid  or  have 
stops  nailed  on.  For  inside  work,  if  the 
stops  are  planted  on  after  the  door  is  hung, 
the  carpenter  is  able  to  make  them  fit  the 

15 


so  very  important  which  side  the  door  is 
hung,  although  it  is  more  usual  for  a  door 
to  open  against  the  fireplace  ;  but  when, 
as  is  generally  the  case,  the  doorway  is 
near  a  corner,  the  door  should  be  hung 
to  the  jamb  farthest  from  the  corner. 
The  side  of  the  door  which  has  double 
tenons  is  the  side  for  the  lock,  so  the  other 
must  be  the  one  for  the  hinges.  Mark  on 
the  muntin  of  the  door  to  indicate  which  is 
the  inside  face,  and  stand  it  against  the  wall. 
Then  take  two  short  strips  of  wood,  and, 


338 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINEKY. 


holding  them  together  in  the  middle,  care- 
fully take  the  width  of  the  opening  about  a 
foot  above  the  floor,  as  indicated  at  Fig. 
1123.  Mark  this  measurement  on  the 
door  at  about  the  same  height,  allowing 
for  taking  as  much  off  one  edge  as  the 
other,  so  as  not  to  make  one  stile  appear 
narrower  than  the  other  ;  also  allow  a  good 
y\r  in.  each  side  for  the  joint.    Follow  the 


way,  put  a  wedge,  about  1  ft.  long  and  1  in. 
thick,  the  thin  edge  under  the  low  stile,  and 
force  it  in  until  the  door  stands  square  with 
the  jambs,  and  shows  an  equal  joint  from 
top  to  bottom.  Observe  how  each  stile  fits 
each  jamb,  and  also  whether  the  joints  are 
even.  If  not  quite  satisfactory,  mark  the 
parts,  take  down  the  door,  and  plane  the 
stiles  where  necessary.  Replace  in  position 
and  keep  one  stile  close  to  a  jamb.  Now 
push  the  blade  of  a  square  under  the  head 
of  the  door  jamb,  in  the  joint  of  the  door, 
and  mark  across  the  edge  (Fig.  1125) ;  then 


Fig.  1126.  Fig.  1127. 

Fig.  1126. — Projection  of  Knuckle  of  Butt. 
Fig.  1127. 


-Joint  between  Door  and  Frame. 


Fig.  1125. — Scribing  Door  for  Height. 

same  procedure  at  the  upper  part  of  the 
door  about  a  foot  below  the  head.  Test 
each  jamb  with  a  stra'ghtedge  so  as  to  note 
whether  to  plane  the  stiles  straight  or  to  allow 
for  any  inequalities.  Next  hold  the  door 
on  its  edge  as  shown  at  Fig.  1124  and 
plane  the  edges  down  to  the  marks,  taking 
care  to  leave  them  a  little  out  of  square  in 
favour  of  the  outside  of  the  doorc  Stand 
the  door  up  in  its  place,  and,  if  it  leans  either 


square  this  mark  across  the  stile  of  the  door, 
and  do  the  same  on  the  opposite  stile.  Take 
the  compasses,  and,  setting  them  to  the 
narrowest  part  of  the  top  rail  left  above 
the  marks  just  made  (see  a,  Fig.  1125),  prick 
ofi  two  marks  above  those  made  with  the 
square  on  the  stile.  This  will  give  the  actual 
shape  of  the  door  head,  irrespective  of  its 
squareness ;  and  if,  without  shifting  the 
compasses,  the  floor  line  is  scribed  across 
both  stiles  and  the  bottom  rail  as  shown  at 
Fig.  1125,  the  exact  height  of  the  door,  with- 
out allowing  anything  for  joint,  will  be  ob- 
tained. Lay  the  door  on  two  stools,  mark 
across  from  the  marks  at  the  top  made  by  the 


m 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


339 


compasses,  and  also  at  the  bottom,  after  al- 
lowing f  in.  for  the  joints  at  top  and  bottom. 
Saw  ofi  the  surplus  stuff  to  these  marks,  take 
ofi  the  rough  arrises  with  the  jack  plane,  and 
the  door  is  fitted.  Stand  the  door  on  one 
side  for  a  few  minutes,  and  fit  the  door  stops. 
Cut  the  head  to  length  first,  and  tap  it  in  ; 
then  square  off  the  side  stops  a  Httle  shorter 
than  the  height  of  the  opening,  mark  them 
to  exact  length,  and  spring  them  into  their 
places.  Try  the  door  in  position,  and  ease  it 
if  necessary  ;  if  not,  then  stand  it  on  one 


A 


Fig.  1128.— Setting  Out  on  Edge  for  Flange  of 
Butt. 


Fig.  1131.— Showing  Stile  of  Door  Planed  to 
Allow  for  Clearance  in  Opening. 

side  and  let  in  the  hinges,  the  top  one  about 
6  in.  or  7  in.  down,  and  the  bottom  one  just 
above  the  bottom  rail.  There  is  no  par- 
ticular rule  to  go  by  as  to  height,  and  half 
an  inch  more  or  less  makes  no""  difference, 
as  long  as  the  butts  are  never  let  into  the 
stiles  at  the  ends  of  the  tenons  of  the  rails. 

Putting  on  the  Hinges. — Some  joiners  in- 
sist that  the  hinges  should  be  let  in  so  that 
their  centres  come  to  the  centre  of  the  joint 
of  the  door  (Figs.  1126  and  1127) ;  the 
reason  given  is  that  if  this  is  not  done. 


and  the  door  is  left  sHghtly  open,  people 
can  peep  in  and  see  all  over  the  room. 
No  doubt  there  is  truth  in  this  ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  if  this  course  is  followed, 
the  joint  of  the  door  comes  so  close 
that  it  will  not  open  much  more  than 
square  before  it  binds  on  the  mouldings.  The 
first  man  coming  in  with  the  furniture  pushes 
the  door  right  open,  as  he  thinks  ;  but  as 


Fig.  1129.— Flange  of  Butt  Screwed  to  Stile. 

this  cannot  be  done,  the  result  is  that  the 
door  is  partly  torn  from  its  hinges.  It  is 
therefore  preferable  to  keep  the  top  hinge 
out  nearly  J  in.,  and  the  bottom  one  J  in. 


Fig.  1130. — Marking  along  Knuckle  of  Butt  for 
Letting  into  Jamb. 

more.  Set  out  the  hinges  on  the  stile  as 
shown  at  Fig.  1128,  the  hues  a  and  b  being 
made  with  a  marking  gauge.  Saw  and 
pare  out  and  then  screw  the  flange  of  the  butt 
in  position  as  shown  at  Fig.  1129  ;  its  sur- 
face should  be  just  flush  with  the  edge  of 
the  door.    Next  offer  the  door  in  position, 


340 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


pushing  the  wedge  underneath  until  a  joint 
about  the  thickness  of  a  penny  is  obtained 
at  each  side  and  at  the  top.  Mark  the 
position  of  the  hinges  both  at  top  and 
bottom  with  a  chisel ;  then  with  the  chisel 
mark  the  thickness  of  the  knuckle  on 
the  edge  of  the  jamb,  as  shown  at  Fig. 
1130.  This  will  give  the  depth  to  which 
to  let  the  hinge  in.  The  other  edge  of  the 
hinge  should  not  be  let  in  more  than  its  own 


Repairing-  and  Replacing-  Door  Panels. 

Cause  ot  Panels  Splitting. — One  of  the  most 
general  causes  of  door  panels  splitting  up 
the  middle  is  the  improper  fixing  of  the 
mouldings  ;  the  naik  be'ng  inserted  so  that 
they  pass  through  a  portion  of  the  panel  into 
the  framing  as  indicated  at  a  (Fig.  1132), 
whereas  the  moulding  should  be  secured  to 
the  framing  only,  as  indicated  at  b.    It  will 


Fig.  1132. — Part  Horizontal  Section  through  Split  Door  Panel,  etc. 


^Fig.  1133. — Part  Elevation  of  Split  Door  Panel,  etc. 


thickness,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  drive 
the  screws  in  square  with  the  hinge. 

Completing  the  Hanging. — Get  the  posi- 
tion of  the  stops,  close  the  door,  and  knock 
it  gently  until  it  is  flush  with  the  jamb  at 
the  spot  where  the  lock  will  come  ;  then  nail 
on  the  stops  so  that  they  fit  close  on  the  lock 
stile,  and  allow  about  ^j^-m.  joint  on  the  head 
and  hanging  stile  to  allow  for  paint.  Drive 
in  the  nails  about  1  ft.  apart,  and  on  alter- 
nate edges,  so  that  the  stops  shall  not  curl 
away  from  the  jamb.  The  planing  under  of 
door  stiles — that  is,  planing  them  out  of 
square  so  that  they  do  not  bind  on  the  inner 
edge  when  closed — is  shown  in  the  section 
(Fig.  1131). 


be  seen  that  in  the  former  case  the  panel  has 
no  chance  of  shrinking  a  little  in  the  plough 
groove ;  hence  the  splitting.  (Figs.  1132 
and  1133  are  part  section  and  part  elevation 
respectively  of  a  split  pane  in  a  door.) 
Another  cause  of  splitting  is  the  fitting  of 
the  panels  too  tightly  into  the  plough 
grooves. 

Repairing  Split  Panel. — To  repair  a  spHt 
panel  in  which  the  split  is  not  of  long  stand- 
ing, and  in  which,  when  the  parts  are  forced 
together,  a  fair  joint  will  result,  first  care- 
fully take  out  the  mouldings  from  each  side, 
then  make  six  or  eight  blocks  and  wedges 
similar  to  those  shown  in  Fig.  1134  ;  screw 
the  blocks  to  the  panel  as  indicated,  taking 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


341 


care  to  keep  the  screw-holes  in  the  panel  so 
that  they  will  be  covered  by  the  mouldings  ; 
then  by  carefully  levering  with  a  chisel,  and 
lightly  striking  the  wedges,  the  parts  of  the 
panel  can  be  forced  together.    If  the  result 


Inserting  Strip  in  Split  Panel.— Another 
method,  which,  in  ce  tain  circumstances, 
would  be  the  only  satis  factory  one,  of  repair- 
ing a  split  panel  is  as  follows  : — Take  out  the 
moulding  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  panel 
(this  being  necessary  on  one  side  only),  and 
set  out  as  shown  in  Figs.  1132  and  1133  in 
which  B  and  b'  indicate  the  crack.  On  one 
side  make  the  distance,  indicated  by  the  solid 


Fig.  1134. 


-Method  of  Close  Wedging  the  Split 
of  Panel. 


Fig.  1135. 


-Conventional  Sectional  View  showing 
Piece  Inserted  in  Panel. 


of  the  trial  is  found  to  be  satisfactory,  the 
wedges  can  be  released,  the  crack  opened, 
and  some  good  glue  run  in.  Then  the  wedges 
are  tightened,  and  the  parts  forced  as  close 
as  possible,  any  superfluous  glue  being  care- 
fully washed  off.  After  the  glue  is  dry,  any 
projecting  parts  may  be  removed  by  means 
of  a  sharp  scraper  and  glasspaper  ;  then  the 
mouldings  can  be  replaced. 


lines  marked  a  a,  less  than  the  distance  h  b, 
indicated  on  the  other  side  by  dotted  lines. 
These  lines  having  been  drawn  on  each  side, 
the  superfluous  wood  should  be  pared  off 
exactly  to  the  lines,  forming  a  dovetailed 
opening.  Next  prepare  a  strip  of  wood  so 
that  it  fits  in  as  indicated  in  Fig.  1135.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  it  is  necessary  to  notch 
each  end  out  just  between  the  mouldings 
at  the  top  and  bottom  on  that  side  where  the 
mouldings  have  not  been  taken  out.  The 
arrangement  being  satisfactory,  secure  the 
strip  with  glue,  taking  care  to  keep  the  two 
parts  of  each  surface  of  the  panel  in  the  same 
plane.  The  whole  should  then  stand  for  a 
time,  to  allow  of  the  glue  setting  thoroughly. 
After  this  the  strip  may  be  cleaned  off  on 
each  side  flush  with  the  panel,  a  small  iron 
plane  being  extremely  useful  for  this  pur- 


342 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


pose  ;  and  after  being  finished  ofi  with  fine 
glasspaper,  the  pieces  of  moulding  may  be 
re-inserted. 

Replacing  Panel  in  Door. — Sometimes  a 
panel  may  be  so  much  damaged  that  it 
must  be  replaced,  and  in  some  cases,  especi- 
ally with  good  doors,  it  is  objectionable  to 
take  ofi  the  stiles  because  of  the  liabiHty  to 
spoil  the  latter  and  the  rails,  particularly 
where  the  joints  have  been  well  glued  and 
wedged  together.  The  method  about  to 
be  described  will  obviate  these  objections 
and  produce  a  good  sound  job  : — First  take 
out  the  mouldings  on  each  side  of  the  panel, 
and  cut  out  the  panel.  This  may  be  done 
by  making  a  hole  with  a  brace  and  bit  and 
sawing  down  a  short  distance  with  a  pad 
saw,  the  remainder  being  cut  with  a  panel 
saw.  The  main  portion  having  been  taken 
out,  the  pieces  can  be  removed  from  the 


plane.  Of  course,  little  of  this  will  be  neces- 
sary if  the  parts  have  been  carefully  fitted. 
The  mouldings  may  then  be  re-inserted,  and 
the  job  thus  completed  as  far  as  the  joiner  is 
concerned. 

Four = panelled    Moulded    Door,  with 
Plain   Framed  Jamb   Linings  in 
an  i8  =  in.  Wall. 
The     Door. — A  door  and  jamb  finings 
which  will  usually  be  found  in  a  larger  build- 
ing than  in  the  preceding  case  are  shown  at 
Figs.  1137  to  1142.    This  door  is  repre- 
sented as  being  7  ft.  by  3  ft.  and  2  in.  to 
2i  in.   thick,   panelled   and   moulded  as 
shown.    The  framing  of  doors  of  this  kind, 
when  of  deal  or  pine,  is  generally  made  from 
stuff  11  in.  wide ;  therefore  the  finished  sizes 
are  usually  about  as  follows  :  Bottom  rail 
and  middle  rail  lOJ  in.  wide,  and  stile,  top 


Fig.  1136.— Section  of  Panel  with  Rebated  Fillets. 


plough  grooves  with  a  chisel.  Now  make  a 
new  panel  in  the  following  way.  Prepare 
two  strips  about  f  in.  wide,  and  the  same 
thickness  as  the  panel.  Next  prepare  the 
panel,  and  rebate  this  and  the  strips  together 
as  shown  at  Fig.  1136,  so  that  when  they  are 
put  together  their  combined  width  will  be 
exactly  the  same  as  the  distance  between  the 
plough  grooves  of  the  stile  and  muntin. 
Next  fit  the  rebated  fillets  into  the  plough 
grooves,  and  cut  off  the  panel  to  length. 
It  is  not  possible  to  cut  it  off  long  enough 
to  go  the  full  distance  into  the  top  and 
bottom  plough  grooves  ;  but  if  it  is  cut  off 
the  length  between  the  rails  plus  the  depth 
of  one  plough  groove  it  will,  when  put  in 
position,  be  of  sufficient  length  to  extend 
halfway  into  each  plough  groove.  When 
found  to  fit  satisfactorily,  the  panel  may 
be  shpped  out,  and,  its  rebated  edges  and 
also  those  of  the  fillets  being  glued,  it  may 
be  pushed  back  into  its  proper  position, 
care  being  taken  that  at  the  top  and  bottom 
it  extends  into  the  plough  grooves.  Addi- 
tional security  may  be  obtained  by  insert- 
ing a  few  fine  screws  diagonally  as  indicated 
in  Fig.  1136.  When  the  glue  is  dry,  the 
joints  may  be  cleaned  off  with  a  small  rebate 


rail,  and  muntins  SJ  in.  wide.  The  upper 
part  of  the  door  is  divided  into  two  panels 
by  the  horizontal  frieze  rail.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  different  joints  would  be  very 
similar  to  that  shown  and  explained  in  the 
example  on  p.  329,  except  for  the  tenons  on 
the  middle  rail  where  the  mortice  lock  is 
provided  for.  In  the  present  example 
double  twin  tenons  would  be  made  and 
fitted  into  corresponding  mortices,  cut  in  the 
stiles  as  represented  at  Fig.  1141.  These 
double  tenons  are  provided  with  the  object 
that  when  the  mortice  is  cut  through  the 
stile  for  the  mortice  lock  it  does  not  inter- 
fere with  or  weaken  the  wood  in  the  same 
vertical  planes  as  the  tenons. 

Framed  Jamb  Linings,  Grounds,  etc. — 
These  are  fitted  in  an  18-in.  wall,  which 
means  that,  with  the  plastering,  the  jamb 
linings  will  have  to  be  20  in.  wide.  It  is 
usual  to  frame  the  jamb  linings  out  of  stuff 
2|  in.  to  3|  in.  wide  and  about  IJ  in.  to 
If  in.  thick.  The  rails  and  stiles  of 
these  linings  are  mortised  and  tenoned 
together,  wedged  up,  and  cleaned  off  in 
the  usual  manner,  as  clearly  shown  at 
Fig.  1142.  The  jambs  and  head  stiles  are 
also   grooved   and   tongued   together,  as 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES.  343 


344 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


shown.  The  jambs  are  placed  plumb  and  driven  in.  Any  necessary  firring,  either  in 
out  of  winding,  and  fastened  to  wooden    the  form  of  wedges^or  strips,  would  be  placed 


Fig.  1141. — Conventional  View  of  Double  Twin 
bricks  or  to  breeze  bricks  built  in  the  sides  of  Tenons  for  Lock  Rail, 

the  opening  ;  or  if  these  are  not  provided, 

some  of  the  mortar  joints  between  the  brick-  between  the  wood  bricks  and  the  back  of 
work  would  be  cut  out  and  wooden  plugs     the  hnings,  so  that  the  latter  might  be  fixed 


15* 


Fig.  1144. 


346 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


straight,  plumb,  and  out  of  winding.  Where 
wood  lintels  are  used  as  shown,  there  is  very 
httle  difficulty  in  fixing  the  head.  Grounds 
to  form  a  base  for  the  architraves  are  now 
fixed  round  each  side  of  the  opening,  flush 
with  the  edges  of  the  jamb  linings  as  shown 
at  L  (Fig.  1142).  A  board  of  the  necessary 
width,  which  in  this  case  is  15  J  in.,  by  Jin. 
to  f  in.  in  thickness,  would  be  fixed  to  the 
framing  round  the  jamb  linings,  as  indicated 
by  the  portion  shown  at  s  (Fig.  1142),  thus 
forming  on  each  side  a  rebate  equal  to  the 
thickness  of  the  door. 


Fig.  1146. — Enlarged  Detail  through  Head  of 
Linings,  Architraves,  etc. 

5ix= panelled  Door  with  Framed  and 
Panelled  Liningfs  in  an  i8=in.  Wall. 

A  door  and  jamb  linings  of  rather  a  more 
important  character  are  illustrated  by 
Figs.  1143  to  1146.  The  general  construc- 
tion of  the  door  would  be  similar  to  that  in 
the  previous  case.  The  jamb  Hnings  in 
this  example  are  formed  of  panelled  and 
moulded  framing,  so  as  to  correspond  with 
the  door.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  stiles 
are  rebated  out  of  the  solid,  forming  a  recess 
and  stop  for  the  door  on  one  side  and 
simply  a  rebate  on  the  other.  The  fixing 
of  the  linings  and  grounds  would  be  very 
similar  to  that  in  the  last  example,  except 
that  in  the  last  example  the  fixing  of  the 
linings  is  mostly  hidden  by  the  stop. 


Outer  Door  with  Bead   Butt  Panels 
and  Frame  with  Fanlig^ht. 

A  four-panelled  outer  doof,  the  inside 
being  moulded,  and  the  outside  having  bead 
butt  panels,  is  illustrated  in  elevation,  plan, 
and  section  at  Figs.  1147  to  1149.  The 
frame  is  fixed  in  an  18-in.  brick  wall  with 
4J-in.  reveals ;  the  finish  to  the  opening  on 
the  inside  is  by  splayed  Hnings,  as  shown. 
The  sizes  are  figured  on  the  drawings. 

Door  Frame. — The  chief  points  to  notice 
in  this  are  the  forms  of  the  joints  between 
the  head  and  jambs,  as  represented  at  Fig. 
1150,  and  that  between  the  jambs  and 
transom  shown  at  Fig.  1151.  Another 
view  of  the  transom  is  given  at  Fig.  1152 
so  as  to  show  the  construction  more  clearly. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  frame  is  rebated  out 
of  the  solid  and  beaded  on  the  inside  ;  it 
is  also  ploughed  to  receive  the  tongues  of  the 
jambs,  the  splayed  linings,  and  the  soffit  of 
same  ;  the  outside  edge  of  the  frame  has 
an  ovolo  worked  on.  The  mitering  and 
intersection  of  the  beads  between  the  head 
post  and  transom  are  shown  at  Figs.  1150 
to  1152.  This  frame  would  be  built  in  be- 
tween the  brickwork  as  described  for  previ- 
ous examples,  or  it  would  be  fixed  to  wood 
bricks  or  plugs.  The  rebate  of  the  head  of 
the  frame  is  splayed  as  shown,  to  facilitate 
the  opening  and  closing  of  the  fanlight. 

Splayed  Linings. — These  would  be  tongued 
and  grooved  together  in  a  somewhat  similar 
manner  as  the  jamb  linings  (Fig.  1042,  p. 
344).  They  should  also  have  tongues 
formed  on  their  inner  edges  so  as  to  fit  into 
the  corresponding  grooves  in  the  frame  as 
indicated  at  Figs.  1153  and  1154.  These 
linings  would  be  sufficiently  wide  to  project 
about  J  in.  beyond  the  brickwork,  which  is 
the  thickness  of  the  plaster.  The  linings 
would  be  fixed  to  wood  bricks  or  plugs  pro- 
vided in  the  brickwork,  with  necessary 
packing  pieces  or  wedges,  so  that  they  are 
straight  and  out  of  winding.  The  grounds 
vary  from  3  in.  to  5  in.  wide,  according  to 
the  breadth  of  the  architrave  which  is  to  be 
fixed  to  them.  These  should  next  be  fixed, 
so  that  their  faces  are  flush  with  the  face  of 
the  splayed  linings  round  the  edge  which  has 
to  be  next  to  the  plastering,  this  being 
splayed  so  as  to  form  a  key. 


348 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.   1155. — Conventional  View  showing  Portion     Fig.   1153. — Enlarged  Detail  through  Head  and 
of  Head  and  Butt  Panels  and  Framing.  Transom  of  Frame. 


DOORS  AND  DOOK  FRAMES. 


349 


The  Door.— In  making  this,  tlie  points  to  joiners  prefer  making  the  shoulders  of  the 

notice  beyond  those  already  treated  on  are  panels  and  muntins  all  exactly  one  length, 

that  the  face  of  the  panels  on  the  outside  but  perhaps  a  better  plan  is  to  have  each 

usually  finish  flush  with  the  framing.    The  muntin  a  shade  (say      ^^•)  longer ;  then  at 


1 — i~ri — c 


Fig.  1158.— Half  Inside  Elevation  and  Half  Outside  Elevation  with  Shutter  Removed. 


panels  are  rebated  on  the  outside  to  fit  into 
the  ploughed  groove  of  the  framing  A  J-in., 
f-in.,  or  |-in.  bead  is  worked  on  the  vertical 
edges  of  the  panels,  but  the  ends  of  the 
panels  fit  square  to  the  edges  of  the  rails,  as 
illustrated  at  Figs.  1147  and  1155.  Some 


the  time  of  wedging  up  to  cramp  from  the 
top  and  bottom  rails,  so  as  to  bring  all  up 
close.  The  fanhght  of  this  door,  being  sash- 
work,  will  be  dealt  with  in  that  section.  In 
Figs.  1147  to  1149  a  well  for  a  mat  is  partly 
shown. 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  1157. 


DOOllS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


351 


the  upper  part  of  the  framing  of  the  door. 
It  projects  about  half  its  thickness  on  the 
inside,  so  as  to  allow  a  recess  sufficient  to 
receive  the  shutter ;  this  will  be  clearly 
understood  by  reference  to  a  (Fig.  1159), 
and  also  to  Figs.  1161,  1163,  and  1164. 


Fig.  1160.— Enlarged  Details  of  D 
(Fig.  1157)  and  of  E  (Fig.  1157). 


Fig.  1161. — Enlarged  Detail  through  Lower 
Panel,  Middle  Rail,  and  Bottom  Rails  of 
Sash  and  Shutter. 

Outer  Door  and  Frame,  Lower  Panels 
Bead  and  Flush.  Upper  Part  of 
Door  prepared  for  Sash  and  Lifting 
Shutter. 

This  example  is  illustrated  by  Figs.  1156 
to  1180.  Reference  to  Fig.  1156,  which  is 
an  outside  elevation,  will  show  that  the 
bottom  panels  have  a  continuous  bead  round 
them,  and  this  kind  of  panel  is  known  as 
bead  flush.  The  upper  part  has  a  movable 
shutter,  which  also  has  bead  flush  panels  ; 
a  conventional  view  of  one  of  these  is  shown 
at  Fig.  1162.  A  half  inside  elevation  with 
the  shutter  removed  is  given  at  Fig.  1158, 
which  brings  into  view  the  sash,  fitted  into 


Fig.  1162.— Enlarged  Conventional  Details  of 
Bottom  Rail,  Muntin,  and  Panel  of  Shutter. 


Fig.  1163.— Enlarged  Conventional  Details  of 
Corner  of  Sash,  showing  it  fitted  to  Framing 
of  Door. 


352 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Frame,  Linings,  Grounds,  etc. — The  con- 
struction of  the  frame  being  similar  to  pre- 
vious examples,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
enter  into  a  lengthy  description  of  it.  It 
is  ploughed  to  receive  the  tongues  of  the 
square  linings,  as  shown  in  plan  and  section 


Fig.  1164. — Conventional  Detail  showing  Thumb 
Screw,  etc.,  for  Fastening  Bottom  of  Shutter. 

(Figs.  1157  and  1159),  and  in  an  enlarged 
detail  (Fig.  1160).  In  this  case  the  grounds 
have  ovolo-moulded  edges,  and  are  sHghtly 
rebated  so  as  to  fix  to  the  outer  edges  of  the 
hnings,  as  shown  at  a  (Fig.  1160).  These 
grounds  also  serve  as  part  of  the  architrave, 
and  thus  allow  a  narrower  architrave  mould- 
ing being  used  round  the  frame,  which  at 


Fig.  1165.— Stub  and  Plate  for  Securing  Top  of 
Shutter. 

the  same  time  produces  an  efiect  equal  to  a 
broader  architrave  moulding. 

Door. — The  construction  of  this  door  is 
similar  in  some  respects  to  those  already 
described,  and  therefore  these  points  need 
not  be  recapitulated.    However,  as  in  the 


setting  out  and  making  new  features  are 
introduced,  it  will  be  necessary  to  explain 
them.  The  stufi  for  cutting  out  the  pair 
of  stiles  can  usually  be  Hned  out  on  a 
board  as  represented  at  Fig.  1167.  Here 
the  upper  part  of  one  stile  is  shown  adjacent 
to  the  lower  part  of  the  other  stile.  This 
method  leaves  a  spare  strip  between  the 
stiles,  which  may  be  taken  out  in  two 
pieces.  Perhaps  a  better  method  is  to  cut 
off  from  one  edge  of  the  board  a  long  strip, 
as  shown  at  A  (Fig.  1167).  The  more  general 
method  in  trying  up  the  stiles  is  to  first  true 
up  the  face  sides  ;  then  the  back  edges  are 
shot  straight  and  also  square  to  these  sides, 
and  then  the  lower  parts  of  the  stiles  are 
gauged  and  planed  to  a  breadth,  and,  of 
course,  made  square  to  the  face  side  as  low 
as  convenient,  which  is  usually  a  few  inches 
ofi  the  exact  distance.    The  sash  parts  of 


Fig.  1166.— Completed  End  of  Middle  Rail. 

the  stiles  are  sometimes  gauged  and  worked, 
but  perhaps  the  better  plan  is  to  leave  this 
operation  until  after  the  stiles  have  been  set 
out  and  mortised.  When  all  the  stufi  for 
the  framework  of  the  door  has  been  trued 
up,  the  setting  out  would  be  proceeded  with. 
The  rod  for  the  length  is  represented  at  a 
(Fig.  1168).  From  this  the  sash  and  shutter 
have  been  purposely  omitted  for  the  sake  of 
clearness.  One  of  the  stiles  should  be 
placed  on  the  rod,  and  the  positions  for  the 
rails  marked  off  ;  then  the  sizes  of  the  tenons 
and  allowance  for  haunchings  should  also 
be  pricked  off.  The  face  sides  of  this  pair 
of  stiles  should  next  be  placed  together  with 
the  face  edges  outwards  ;  then  squared  down 
for  the  mortices,  etc.,  as  represented  at  b 
(Fig.  1168).  The  positions  for  the  mortices 
can  then  be  transferred  to  the  back  edges 
of  the  stiles,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  Hues. 


354 


CARPENTEY  AND  JOINERY. 


The  relation  between  the  rod  and  the 
setting  out  of  the  stiles  is  clearly  shown  by 
the  projectors.  The  setting  out  for  the 
mortices  and  wedging  can  be  completed  on 


part  of  the  setting  out  of  the  three  rails 
from  this  is  clearly  shown  projected  above  at 
D.  The  setting  out  for  the  shoulders, 
haunchings,  and  mortices  for  muntins  for 


Fig.  1172.— Bottom  Rail  Set  Out. 


Fig.  1171  C. 


Fig.  1171  C— Width  Rod.      Fig.  1171  D.— Rails  Set  Out  on  Edges  ;  the  Projectors  from  the  Rod 
show  the  Connection  of  the  Setting  Out  with  it.       Fig.  1173. — Middle  Rail  Set  Out. 


the  back  edges,  as  represented  at  Fig.  1169. 
The  muntins  can  also  be  placed  on  the  stiles 
and  marked  for  the  shoulders,  as  repre- 
sented ;  then  these  can  be  taken  ofi,  and 
squared  round  for  the  shoulders  as  shown 
at  Fig.  1170.  The  rod  for  the  width  of  the 
door  is  shown  at  c  (Fig.  1171),  and  the  first 


the  bottom  rail  is  shown  at  Fig.  1172.  The 
complete  setting  out  for  the  shoulders,^  etc., 
of  the  middle  rail  is  shown  at  Fig.  1173.  By 
referring  to  Fig,  1171  c  at  e  and  f,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  front  and  back  shoulders 
of  the  middle  rail  are  not  in  one  plane,  owing 
to  the  small  bead  worked  round  the  out- 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES- 


355 


side  of  the  framing  to  break  joint  with  the 
shutter.  The  beads  start  from  the  same 
square  Hne  at  the  bottom  edge  as  a  b  (Fig. 
1173),  but  the  one  finishes  the  breadth  of  the 
bead  in  front  of  the  other,  as  indicated  at 
D  and  E,  the  exact  amount  being  the  bead 
and  quirk,  the  stile  diminishing  the  dis- 
tance A  H  on  the  outside  and  AG  on  the 
inside.  Squaring  the  Hne  across  from  G, 
as  represented  by  the  dotted  Hne,  and  then 


7  / 

L 

Fig.  1175. 


Setting  Out  of  Shoulders  on  Face 
Side  of  Stiles. 


1,1 

IVl 

\ 

\ 

\  ,  — ' —  ' 

D 

\ 

Fig.  1176.— Setting  Out  of  Shoulders  on  Back 
Side  of  Stiles. 

down  the  edge,  the  point  d  is  found,  and 
joining  d  to  a,  the  inside  shoulder  is  shown. 
Now  squaring  across  from  H  as  shown  by 
the  second  dotted  line,  the  point  k  is  ob- 
tained ;  from  the  arris  measuring  the  thick- 
ness of  the  bead,  the  point  f  is  obtained ; 
joining  f  to  b  gives  the  outside  shoulder.  The 


M  (Fig.  1175),  and  then  marking  the  thick- 
ness of  the  bead  from  the  gauge  Hne  n,  draw 
the  short  Hne  parallel  to  this  as  shown  at 


Fig.  1177. — Application  of  Adjustable  Square 
for  Setting  Out  Shoulders  on  Stiles. 

o.  Thus  point  f  is  obtained,  and' joining 
F  to  B  gives  the  shoulder  line.  On  the  in- 
side of  the  stile  (Fig.  1176)  square  across 
from  the  line  l,  and  where  this  intersects 


Fig.  1178.— Application  of  Adjustable  Square  for  Setting  Out  Shoulders  on  Middle  Rail. 


setting  out  for  the  top  rail  is  shown  at  Fig. 
1174,  the  difference  between  the  front  and 
back  shoulders  being  equal  to  the  thickness 
of  the  bead.  The  shoulder  lines  can  now  be 
set  out  on  the  stiles  ;  Fig.  1175  represents 
the  outside  portion  of  the  stile,  whereas 
Fig.  1176  represents  the  inside.  Remem- 
bering what  has  been  stated  about  setting 
out  the  middle  rail,  first  squaring  on  the  side 


with  the  gauge  Hne  p,  it  gives  the  point  d, 
and  joining  d  to  a  gives  the  shoulder  Hne. 

An  adjustable  square  will  be  found  very 
useful  in  setting  out  the  shoulders  both  on 
the  stiles  and  rails.  One  is  illustrated  at 
Figs.  1177  and  1178.  Usually  the  stock  is 
the  length  shown  from  a  to  b,  but  by  having 
it  longer,  as  shown,  the  inner  edge  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  stile  can  be  worked  from 


356 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


instead  of  the  back  edge,  and  this  is  an  ad- 
vantage. The  longer  stock  is  also  an  ad- 
vantage, as  there  is  more  of  it  to  adjust  to 
the  rail  (see  Fig.  1178).  When  the  square 
is  true  and  properly  adjusted,  then  obvi- 
ously, if  the  stuff  is  planed  up  true,  the 
shoulders  can  be  accurately  marked  out  by 
the  aid  of  this  square. 

The  work  can  now  be  gauged,  the  mor- 
tices made,  and  the  tenons  cut.  Perhaps  the 
best  method  of  mortising  is  to  do  all  the 
mortices  of  the  stiles  before  the  splay 
shoulders  are  cut ;   especially  is  this  more 


between  what  will  form  the  quirks  for  the 
top  and  bottom  beads,  as  indicated  by  sohd 
Hues  in  Fig.  1179,  in  which  the  dotted 
lines  represent  the  full  length  of  the 
panel  after  the  insertion  of  the  top  and  bot- 
tom bead.  Next  rebate  and  bead  the 
edges,  and  then,  with  a  short  thin  chisel  and 
a  mallet,  cut  out  the  wider  rebates  at  each 
end,  as  shown  at  Fig.  1180.  Take  a  piece 
of  board  equal  to  about  the  thickness  of 
the  panel  less  the  tongue  which  goes  into 
the  plough  groove,  and  on  this  stick  suffi- 
cient beading  for  the  ends  of  the  panels, 
saw  this  down,  leaving  a  httle  more 
than  the  quirk  on,  plane  down  to 
the  quirk,  cut  off  to  lengths,  mitre 
the  ends  and  also  the  ends  of  the 


1179. — Panel  Gauged  and  Set  Out 
ready  for  Rebating. 


convenient  when  the  mortising  is 
to  be  done  by  a  mortising  machine.  When 
having  to  mortise  entirely  by  hand,  many 
joiners  prefer,  before  mortising,  to  trim  the 
splayed  shoulders  near  to  within  the  hues, 
considering  it  saving  in  labour. 

The  stiles  and  rails  should  be  ploughed, 
the  beads  worked  on,  and  the  splayed 
shoulders  of  the  stiles  accurately  formed  to 
the  lines,  a  bullnose  plane  sometimes  being 
found  useful  for  this  kind  of  shoulder.  The 
shoulders  of  the  rails  can  now  be  cut  and 
the  framing  fitted  together  in  the  usual 
manner.  A  conventional  view  of  a  com- 
pleted end  of  the  middle  rail  is  shown  at 
Fig.  1166.  If  it  is  desired  to  make  pro- 
vision for  a  mortice  lock,  double  twin  tenons, 
as  shown  at  Fig.  1141,  p.  344,  would  take 
the  place  of  those  shown  at  Fig.  1166. 

Bead  and  Flush  Panels. — In  making  the 
bead  and  flush  panels,  the  special  points  are  : 
being  faced  up  and  thicknessed,  they  should 
next  be  gauged  for  width  and  set  out  for 
length  J  in.  less  each  way  than  the  distance 
between  the  plough  grooves,  then  sawn  and 
shot  to  these  lines.  They  should  next  be 
gauged  for  rebating,  and  set  out  for  length. 
The  length  here  referred  to  is  the  distance 


Fig.  1180.— Panel  Rebated,  Side  Beads  Stuck 
ready  for  Mitering  for  Ends  of  Beads. 

bead  stuck  on  the  side  of  the  panels ; 
then  secure  these  beads  in  their  position 
by  a  Httle  glue  and  a  few  brads.  In  Fig. 
1162  at  A  the  bead  is  shown  fixed  in  posi- 
tion. At  B  part  of  the  bead  is  in  position, 
and  at  c  the  other  part  is  shown  projected 
up  so  as  to  give  a  view  of  the  mitering  at 
D.  When  the  door  is  fitted  together,  the 
combined  breadth  of  the  panels  and  muntin 
should  be  from  i^-  "to  J  in.  less  the  length 
of  the  middle  and  bottom  rails  measured  be- 
tween the  shoulders  so  as  to  allow  for  closely 
cramping  up  the  shoulders  of  the  stiles  and 
rails.  The  making  of  the  sash  will  be  de- 
scribed in  the  section  on  sash-making. 

Making  the  Shutter. — This  should  present 
no  difficulty,  its  construction  being  similar  to 
that  of  the  lower  part  of  the  door,  as  shown 
in  the  illustrations.  After  being  wedged 
and  cleaned  off,  it  should  be  fitted  in  the 
recess  in  the  framing,  so  as  to  leave  a  good 
yV  ill*  all  round  the  joint  to  allow  for  paint 
and  a  slight  clearance.  A  thumb-screw 
and  plates  suitable  for  securing  the  bottom 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


357 


of  the  shutter  from  the  inside  of  the  sash  is 
illustrated  at  Fig.  1164 ;  the  nut  plate  being 
let  in  and  screwed  to  the  inside  of  the 
shutter,  and  a  second  plate  fixed  to  the  sash 
receives  the  shoulder  of  the  thumb-screw.  A 
stub  and  plate  for  securing  the  top  of  the 
shutter  is  shown  at  Fig.  1165. 


External  Two = panelled  Door,  Lower 
Panel  Raised  and  Bolection  Moulded  ; 
Upper  Part  of  Framing-  with  Mar= 
ginal  Lights  prepared  for  Glass. 

The  door,  frame,  linings,  etc.,  illustrated 
by  Figs.  1181  to  1201,  are  of  a  kind  that 


358 


CARPENTHY  AND  JOINERY. 


is  commonly  used  in  houses  of  the  subur- 
ban villa  class.  The  door  has  a  1  wer 
panel  plain-faced  on  the  inside,  with  mould - 


83/4x21/4" 

finished  off  with  bolection  moulding.  The 
stiles  are  known  as  diminished  or  gunstock 
stiles,  in  which  the  upper  part,  being  nar- 
rower, forms  a  larger  opening  for  glazing. 
Four  bars  are  provided,  forming  what  is 
known  as  marginal  hghts.    The  frame  is 


Fig.  1186. — Enlarged  Details  of  Head  of  Frame, 
Door,  Soffit,  etc. 


Fig.  1184.  Fig.  1185. 

Fig.  1184.— Enlarged  Details  of  Outside 
Elevation  (Fig.  1181). 
Fig.  1185.— Enlarged  Details  of  Vertical  Section. 

ing  round  the  framing.  The  outside  of  the 
panel  has  a  sunk  margin  with  a  moulding 
worked  on  the  edge  of   the  raising,  and 


Fig.  1187.— Setting  Out  Top  of  Post. 


beaded  on  the  inside  and  moulded  on  the 
outside.  The  frame  is  inserted  in  a  20-in. 
stone  wall.  Splayed  linings,  which  also 
have  a  splayed  soffit,  are  tongued  into  the 
frame  as  shown.  In  the  making  and  fixing 
of  this  door,  frame,  finings,  etc.,  the  points 
which  are  common  to  other  examples,  and 
which  have  been  already  treated,  will  not 
be  recapitulated  ;   only  the  principal  new 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


359 


features  will  be  explained  and  illus- 
trated. 

Frame. — A  portion  of  the  rod  with  the 
head  set  out  is  shown  at  Fig.  1187  ;  pro- 
jected above  this,  the  top  end  of  the  post 


is  less  complicat  d,  whilst  the  amount  of 
labour  involved  is  no  more  by  having  double 
mortices  and  tenons  each  of  1  in.,  as  shown, 
and  the  shoulders  can  be  kept  up  better 
than  with  one  large  tenon.     Next;  set  out 


Fig.  1188.— Setting  Out  for  Mortices  in  Head  of     Fig.  1190.— Showing  Grooved  and  Tongued  Joint 
Frame.  between  Jamb  and  Soffit  of  Linings. 


Fig.  1189.— Completed  Joint  between  Head  and 
Post  of  Frame. 

is  shown  set  out.  The  shoulder  at  b  has 
been  set  out  from  the  square  of  the  moulding 
at  A,  and  the  inner  shoulder  is  set  out  from 
the  quirk  of  the  bead  c,  indicated  by  the 
dotted  line  d.  When  moulded  and  beaded 
as  here  illustrated,  the  setting  out  of  a  frame 


/    !b'  \ 

A 

Fig.  1192. 


1191. 

C  B 

Figs.  1191  and  1192.— Setting  Out  of  Bevels  for 
Intersection  at  Head  of  Linings. 

the  head.  Part  of  the  rod  for  this  is  shown 
at  Fig.  1188,  and  the  setting  out  of  the  head 
is  projected  over  it.  The  mortice  adjacent 
to  1  he  rebate  is  narrow,  and  the  other  mortice 
is  equal  to  the  whole  thickness  of  the  stuff. 
The  mortices  and  tenons  can  now  be  marked, 


360 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


gauging  from  the  face  edge  only  for  both 
of  them.  Having  cut  the  mortices  and  the 
tenons,  the  ploughing  for  the  tongues  of 
the  Hnings  and  rebating  should  be  done, 
after  which  the  bead  may  be  stuck  and  then 


now  be  cut,  and  the  mitering  of  the  mould- 
ing and  bead  done  to  the  post  as  shown  at 
A  (Fig.  1189),  and  that  for  the  head  as 
represented  at  b  (Fig.  1189).  In  these  large 
mouldings  sometimes  that  on  the  jamb  is 


Fig.  1193. — Bevel  Set  Out  for  preparing  Edges 
of  Linings. 


Fig.  1195. — Rebating  to  form  Tongue  on  Edge  of 
Lining. 

the  ogee  moulding  should  be  worked  as  will 
be  explained  in  a  later  section.  Before 
sticking  a  large  moulding,  it  is  as  well  to  run 
gauge  lines,  one  for  working  the  distance 
on,  and  the  other  for  working  the  distance 
down  to.     The  shoulders  of  the  post  can 


Fig.  1194. — Lining  Marked  Out  and  Gauged  for 
Bevelling  of  Edges 


Fig.  1196. — Joint  between  Stile  and  Middle  Rail 
prepared  for  Mortice  Lock 

scribed  over  that  on  the  head  instead  of  miter- 
ing, and  this  method  will  be  illustrated  in  a 
future  example.  The  frame,  after  fitting, 
would  be  wedged  up,  and  a  stretcher  nailed 
across  the  bottom  in  the  usual  way. 

Splayed  Linings. — In  these  the  only  new 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


361 


feature  is  that  as  the  soffit  is  splayed  as  well 
as  the  jambs,  this  involves  a  little  more 
geometrical  construction,  which  is  illustrated 
in  Figs.  1191  and  1192.  Let  d  e  represent 
the  fine  plan  of  the  inner  edge  of  Hnings, 
c  B  the  outer  edge,  and  a  b  the  face  of  the 


Fig.  1197.— Portions  of  Stile  and  Middle  Rail, 
showing  Mouldings  Scribed  Together. 

Hnings,  and  it  will  also  represent  the  plan 
of  the  intersection  between  the  jamb  and 
the  soffit.  Projecting  up,  obtain  the  por- 
tion of  the  elevation  shown  by  1  b'  c',  2  a'  d\ 
and  then  a'  b'  is  the  elevation  of  the  inter- 
section between  the  two  Hnings.  Now  with 
A  as  centre  and  b  as  radius  draw  the  arc 
b  e  ;  project  up  from  e,  drawing  the  Hne  3  e'. 
Projecting  horizontally  from  b'  we  deter- 
mine the  point  e'  ;  join  this  to  a',  and  thus 
the  bevel  at  x  is  that  required  for  the  jamb. 
If  the  face  of  the  soffit  marks  the  same 
angle  with  the  plan  of  the  door  frame,  the 
same  bevel  will  do  for  both.  Where  this  is 
not  the  case,  project  vertically  from  b', 
then  with  a'  as  centre  and  e'  as  radius  draw 
an  arc  which  intersects  with  the  line  pro- 
jected from  b',  giving  point  f  ;  draw  f  c"' 
parallel  to  b  c'.  Then  join  f  to  a',  giving 
the  bevel  y  for  application  to  the  soffit. 
Fig.  1190  shows  one  angle  of  the  linings 
grooved  and  tongued.  A  few  hints  on  pre- 
paring splayed  Hnings  will  here  be  given. 
The  stuff  is  faced  up,  and  the  edge  to  be 
tongued  is  shot  straight.  The  bevel  (Fig. 
1193)  is  set  to  the  splay  that  the  fining 
makes  with  the  frame,  and  is  appHed  so  that 
the  Hne  a  b  (Fig.  1194),  equal  to  the  depth 
of  the  tongue,  is  drawn  with  the  angle  a  of 
the  bevel,  this  latter  being  appHed  to  the 
edge  of  the  fining.  Then  with  the  angle  b 
(Fig.  1193),  the  Hne  b  c  (Fig.  1194)  is  drawn. 
From  A  the  Hne  E  p  is  gauged.  From  the 
rod  obtain  the  breadth  e  to  G,  and  draw 
16 


the  gauge  Hne  through  the  latter ;  with  the 
angle  a  of  the  bevel  draw  the  angle  shown 
at  D.  Plane  off  these  edges,  using  the  bevel 
in  the  same  way  as  the  try  square.  Next 
place  the  wood  edgewise  up,  holding  it  in 
some  convenient  manner,  and  with  the  fil- 
lister rebate  the  back,  thus  forming  the 
tongue  as  illustrated  at  Fig.  1195.  Refer- 
ence to  Fig.  1183  shows  that  the  head  is 
cradled  out  to  admit  the  soffit  fining. 

Setting  Out  the  Door. — In  setting  out 
the  stiles,  the  mortices  must  be  marked 
off  from  the  rod  for  the  cross  bars.  The 
vertical  bars  may  be  placed  on  the  stiles 
and  set  out  both  for  shoulders  and  where 
they  intersect  each  other.  The  rails  can 
next  be  set  out,  and  also  the  cross  bars  with 
them.  The  setting  out  of  the  splayed 
shoulders,  both  in  the  middle  rail  and  in 
the  stiles,  will  be  rather  simpler  than  in 
the  previous  example,  because  the  sticking 
down  of  the  ovolo  and  the  depth  of  the 
rebate  being  equal,  the  shoulders  on  each 
side  will  be  in  one  plane.  The  setting  out 
of  one  end  of  a  vertical  bar  and  one  end  of 
a  cross  bar,  and  also  for  their  intersection, 
is  clearly  shown  at  Fig.  1199.  The  dotted 
lines  indicate  where  the  square  of  each 
member  intersects  with  that  adjacent  to 
it,  and  the  space  between  these  and  the 
soHd  fines  shows  the  amount  that  must 
be  allowed  for  moulding  or  rebating. 


Fig.  1198. — Joint  between  Top  Rail  and  Stile  of 
Door. 

Tenons  of  Bars. — The  tenons  of  the  bars 
should  next  be  sawn  down  to  the  shoulder 
lines  as  shown  at  Fig.  1199.  The  shoulders 
should  be  cut  in  with  a  fine  saw  about  J  in. 
The  sawing  of  the  shoulders  must  not  be 
completed  until  after  the  moulding  and  re- 
bating are  finished. 


362 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Rebating  and  Moulding. — For  a  post 
(shown  at  a,  Fig.  1196),  as  the  sash  filUster 
cannot  be  used  up  to  the  shoulders  of  the 
stiles,  sufficient  of  th3  rebate  should  first  be 


rebated  and  stuck  with  the  ovolo  planes. 
A  sticking  board  will,  of  course,  be  necessary 
for  this  purpose.  Particulars  of  this  will  be 
found  in  the  section  on  sash-making. 


Fig.  1199.— Bars  Set  Out,  Tenons  Cut,  and 
Shoulders  Entered. 

made  by  gauging,  and  paring  out  with  a 
chisel  a  portion  as  shown  at  A  (Fig.  1196) ; 
a  bull-nose  plane  is  useful  for  tliis  purpose. 
The  same  remark  applies  to  the  moulding. 
A  portion  b  (Fig.  1196)  must  be  worked  by 


Scribing,  Haunching,  etc.  —  Provision 
for  a  mortice  lock  is  shown  by  the  double 
twin  tenons  and  mortices  at  Figs.  1196  and 
1197.  At  c  c  (Fig.  1196),  the  mouldings  of 
the  rail  and  stiles  are  shown  mitered.  An 
alternative  method  by  scribing  is  shown  at 
DD  (Figs.  1197  and  1198).  The  special 
kind  of  joint  between  the  top  rail  and  stile 
is  shown  at  Fig.  1198,  where  the  square 
left  from  the  moulding  on  the  stile  is  left  on 
to  form  a  haunch,  and  a  piece  is  mortised  out 
above  the  tenon  to  fit  over  this,  as  shown 
at  F  (Fig.  1198).  Where  the  bars  intersect 
with  the  stiles,  they  should  be  scribed  as 
shown  at  a  (Fig.  1200),  so  as  to  fit  over  the 
solid  mould  of  the  stile.  The  intersection 
between  a  horizontal  and  a  vertical  bar  is 


Fig.  1200.— Bars  Scribed  for  Fitting  Together  and  to  Stile. 


paring,  or  a  pair  of  routers  of  the  same 
pattern  as  the  ovolo  planes  may  be  used 
with  advantage.     The  bars  should  next  be 


shown  at  b.  The  square  on  each  side  of  the 
vertical  bar  is  cut  down  to  the  level  of  the 
rebate,  and  the  moulding  is  also  cut  down  to 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


363 


the  same  level,  thus  forming  a  square  surface 
from  the  square  of  the  rebate  to  that  of  the 
moulding.  Then,  by  cutting  out  a  rect- 
angular piece  from  the  horizontal  bar,  as 
indicated  at  b,  and  then  cutting  a  rect- 
angular piece  from  the  vertical  bar  as 
shown  at  c,  the  two  can  be  pushed  together. 
For  scribing  the  moulding,  ovolo  tem- 
plates are  useful  if  the  irons  of  the  planes 
are  carefully  sharpened  to  the  same  shape. 
A  good  alternative  method  is  to  use  a  mitre 


Fig.  1201.— Conventional  Sectional  View,  showing 
Panel,  Bolection  Moulding,  and  Inside  Moulding. 


template,  and  first  cut  a  mitre  on  the  mould- 
ing, which  will  produce  an  arris  ;  and  if  this 
is  accurately  worked  to  with  the  scribing 
gauge,  the  fitting  should  prove  satisfactory. 

The  Panel.— The  panel  is  first  made 
yV  in.  less  all  round  than  the  distance  be- 
tween the  plough  grooves  ;  then  it  is  gauged 
for  the  breadth  and  depth  of  the  sinkings. 
The  two  sinkings  across  the  grain  should 
first  be  made  either  with  a  rebate  plane  or  a 
panel  plane,  after  first  running  a  couple  of 
saw  kerfs  across  the  grain.  The  sinking  with 
the  grain  can  now  be  made,  the  aim  being  to 
make  all  four  sinkings  in  one  plane.  The 
moulding  should  first  be  stuck  on  across  the 


grain,  and  afterwards  the  two  sides  with  the 
grain  may  be  done.  The  conventional  view 
(Fig.  1201)  will  make  olear  the  construction 
of  the  panel  and  also  of  the  bolection  mould- 
ing mitered  round  the  outside.  The  glass 
is  fixed  in  with  beads  as  shown. 

Panelled  Linings  for  Doorways. 

Panelled  linings  for  doorways,  examples  of 
which  are  illustrated  by  Figs.  1202  and  1203, 
are  so  called  because  they  are  framed — that 
is  to  say,  mortised  and  tenoned,  the  panels 
being  inserted  in  grooves  Hke  the  panels  of  a 
door  ;  in  fact,  they  are  panelled  to  match 
the  door  that  is  intended  to  be  hung  to 
them.  They  are  also  ornamented  with  the 
same  kind  of  moulding  as  the  door — some- 
times with  moulding  put  in  on  the  panel,  but 
not  quite  flush  with  the  surface  of  the  fram- 
ing, sometimes  with  bolection  moulding, 
which  fits  partly  on  the  panel  and  partly  on 
the  framing,  the  angle  of  the  framing  fitting 
into  the  rebate.  More  care  is  required  in 
putting  the  latter  moulding  in  than  in  the 
case  of  the  former — called  a  sunk  moulding — 
for,  besides  having  the  mitre  to  cut,  the 
moulding  has  to  be  put  on  a  mitre  shoot  and 
the  ends  planed  with  a  trying-plane  to  the 
exact  length  and  correct  angle. 

Fitting  the  Mouldings. — The  way  to  ascer- 
tain the  cutting  length  of  the  moulding  is  to 
take  a  small  piece,  an  inch  or  two  in  length, 
and  lay  it  on  the  panel  in  the  same  position 
as  that  in  which  it  is  to  be  fixed,  and  as  near 
the  corner  of  each  panel  as  it  will  go.  Hold 
a  pencil  against  the  part  which  rests  on  the 
framing,  and  draw  a  little  line  J  in.  or  so 
long.  When  each  panel  has  been  gone  round 
in  this  way,  the  width  of  the  rebate  will  be 
marked  exactly.  Cut  the  mitre  at  one  end, 
lay  the  piece  of  moulding  on,  with  the  point 
to  one  of  these  marks,  and  mark  the  length 
I  in.  longer  than  the  pencil  mark  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  panel ;  the  spare  J  in. 
will  allow  for  planing  to  fit.  Procure  four 
pieces  of  wood,  3  in.  or  4  in.  long  by  2J  in. 
or  3  in.  wide,  and  about  the  depth  the  panel 
is  sunk  down  from  the  surface  of  the  framing. 
Lay  them  flat  on  the  panel,  one  at  each 
corner,  and  place  the  four  lengths  of  mould- 
ing on  them,  one  at  a  time,  as  they  are  shot. 
Make  them  fit  closely  one  against  the  other, 
so  that  when  the  last  is  inserted  it  will  want 


364 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


just  a  slight  tap  of  the  hammer  to  get  it 
down  level.  With  the  aid  of  a  bradawl  or 
some  sharp-pointed  tool,  slide  out  the  four 
slips  of  wood,  each  towards  the  centre  of  the 
panel,  and  drive  down  the  moulding.  Lay 
a  flat  strip  of  wood  across  the  panel  corner- 


appearance  and  in  other  respects.  A  very 
good  kind  of  jamb,  however,  is  sometimes 
used  when  the  doorway  is  in  a  9-in.  wall. 
Such  jambs  are  called  skeleton  jambs.  The 
stiles  and  rails  are  generally  3  in.  by  IJ  in., 
but  vary  according  to  circumstances.  They 


Fig.  1203.— Section  through 
Internal  Doorway,  showing  Jamb 
and  part  of  Door  in  Section. 


wise,  and  strike  this  with  the  hammer,  to 
prevent  the  moulding  from  being  bruised.  If 
the  mitre  shoot  was  true,  every  mitre  will 
fit  as  closely  and  nicely  as  possible. 

Skeleton  Jambs. — Every  doorway  must 
have  a  lining  of  some  kind  to  hide  the  rough 
material  of  the  wall.  A  single  plain  board, 
wide  enough  for  a  14-in.  or  18-in.  brick  wall, 

would  be  very  unsatisfactory    indeed    in     framing,  showing  a  rebate  on  the  opposite 


are  planed  true  on  one  side  and  one  edge,  and 
mortised  and  tenoned,  have  three  rails  in 
the  head  (or  soffit  as  it  is  called),  and  about 
four  in  the  jambs  or  uprights,  or  perhaps 
five,  according  to  height,  but  no  panels. 
They  are  fixed  in  the  opening,  and  the  door 
is  hung  to  them.  To  form  the  rebate,  a  wide 
strip  of  J-in.  stufi  is  nailed  on  over  the 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


365 


edge,  to  correspond  with  the  one  the  door 
shuts  into.  It  is  similarr  to  that  shown  in  the 
illustration,  but  in  the  latter  the  rebate  is 
taken  out  of  the  solid  material,  which  should 
be  of  sufficient  thickness  to  allow  of  this. 

Constructing  Panelled  Linings. — Panelled 
linings  are  more  difficult  to  make.  Fig.  1204 
represents  part  of  a  horizontal  section  of  an 
outer  door  frame,  constructed  of  scantling, 
set  back  4J  in.  from  the  face  of  the  wall  in  a 
reveal  in  the  brickwork,  and  showing  panelled 
lining.  The  frame  is  grooved  on  the  inside 
face.  A  plain  lining  is  used  when  the  re- 
quired width  is  only  a  few  inches.  One 
edge  is  rebated  to  form  a  tongue,  which  fits 
into  the  groove  and  helps  to  hold  the  lining 
in  place.  It  is  also  nailed  to  wood  bricks 
built  in  the  sides  of  the  opening  ;  the  head  is 


Fig.  1204. — Horizontal  Section  taken  through 
Centre  of  Panels. 

nailed  to  the  lintel.  On  the  edge  of  the  lining 
the  architrave  moulding  is  fixed,  or  a  framed 
ground  is  used,  in  which  case  the  ground 
would  go  on  first  and  the  architrave  be  fixed 
to  it.  The  facing  is  a  flat  frame,  having 
two  stiles  and  a  rail  |  in.  or  |  in.  thick  at 
least.  The  rail  is  mortised  into  the  stiles,  and 
a  return  bead  or  moulding,  worked  on  the 
inside  edge,  makes  a  better  and  bolder  finish 
than  the  architrave  moulding  only.  Exactly 
the  same  principles  apply  to  the  construction 
of  panelled  linings  as  in  the  case  of  ordinary 
doors.  The  first  consideration  in  all  framing 
is  to  get  the  stuff  perfectly  true  on  the  face. 
Shoot  one  edge  square  and  straight ;  the 
other  edge  need  only  be  jacked  over.  Gauge 
it  to  the  required  thickness  if  for  a  door, 
but  in  the  case  of  panelled  linings  only  one 
side  is  seen,  so  the  back  can  be  left  rough.  In 
setting  out,  put  all  the  lines,  both  for  the 
front  and  back  edges,  on  one  stile  first,  and 
use  that  for  a  pattern.  Lay  it  flat  on  two 
blocks  to  raise  it  off  the  bench,  lay  the  other 
stiles  on,  face  to  face  or  back  to  back,  to  get 


them  in  pairs,  and  square  down  the  lot  at 
once,  if  there  are  not  too  many.  If  pos- 
sible, reach  over  and  square  the  back  lines, 
putting  the  square  to  every  line  on  the 
pattern.  In  wedging  up,  wedge  the  middle 
rail  first,  then  the  bottom,  and  lastly  the  top 
rail,  unless  there  should  be  another  between 
the  middle  and  top  rails,  as  in  a  six-panelled 
door,  in  which  case  this  would  be  wedged 
before  the  top  rail.  The  linings  may  be 
shot  to  the  required  width,  and  the  rebate 
ploughed  and  planed  out.  The  width  of  the 
rebate  should  equal  the  thickness  of  the 
door  ;  its  depth  should  be  J  in.  It  is  always 
best  to  glue  or  screw  a  block,  about  1  in. 
thick,  on  the  back  of  the  lining  where  the 
hinges  come.  Such  blocks  will  receive  the 
screws  and  give  them  a  better  hold.  Wood 
bricks  are  built  in  as  the  brickwork  pro- 
ceeds, to  which  the  linings  are  fixed.  In 
Fig.  1204,  A  signifies  door  frame,  b  panelled 
linings,  c  rough  backing,  d  wood  brick. 

Front = entrance  Door  and  Frame. 

The  front- entrance  door,  with  sidelights 
and  fanlights,  illustrated  by  Figs.  1205  to 
1207,  is  suitable  for  a  villa  residence,  or  for 
the  entrance  to  a  conservatory  attached  to 
such  a  residence,  and  is  often  executed  either 
in  red  deal  or  in  pitch  pine.  The  frame, 
which  is  worked  out  of  5J-in.  by  3-in.  stuff, 
has  a  large  ovolo  moulding  worked  round  it, 
the  mullions  and  transoms  being  similarly 
moulded  ;  it  is  set  on  a  3-in.  stone  sill,  in  a 
2J-in.  recess,  in  14-in.  brickwork,  with  4J-in. 
reveals.  At  the  angles  up  the  jambs  and 
over  the  arch  are  2-in.  quirked,  beaded,  and 
stopped  bricks.  The  arch  bricks  are  gauged, 
and  the  rise  of  the  arch  is  |  in.  to  every  foot 
of  opening  ;  and  the  brickwork  over  the 
head  is  carried  by  a  bressummer,  a  relieving 
arch  being  provided  if  desired.  The  doors 
and  sidehghts  (the  stiles  of  which  are 
diminished)  are  out  of  2-in.  stuff,  and  may 
have  an  ovolo  or  other  moulding  worked  on, 
and  the  top  portions  may  be  filled  with  plain, 
ornamental,  or  coloured  glass.  The  bottom 
panels  of  doors  are  raised  and  bolection 
moulded.  Linings,  surmounted  with  archi- 
trave moulds  rising  from  plain  bases,  are 
provided  round  the  inside  of  the  frame.  The 
door  is  7  ft.  high  by  3  ft.  wide,  and  the  side- 
lights are  7  ft.  high  by  1  ft.  6  in.  wide — all 


Tig.  1207. — Plan  of  Entrance  Door  and  Framing. 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


367 


exclusive  of  rebates.  The  bottom  edge 
of  the  door  is  rebated  and  throated,  and 
shuts  against  a  1-in.  by  f-in.  wrought-iron 


the  fixed  sidehghts  (see  Fig.  1209),  and  is  per- 
manently grooved  into  the  bottom  rail  and 
bedded  in  red-lead.  The  inside  face  of  the 
bressummer  is  lathed  for  plastering.  The 
rib  extending  from  the  head  of  the  frame  to 
the  soffit  of  the  arch  is  out  of  1-in.  stuff,  with 
a  scotia  worked  on  the  bottom  edge.  Fig. 
1210  shows  a  part  section  of  the  door  panels, 
which  are  bead  flush  inside  ;  the  bevel  of  the 
raised  portion  of  the  outside  of  the  panel  will, 
of  course,  depend  upon  its  width,  but  in  no 
case  must  it  rise  above  the  line  of  the  out- 
side member  of  the  bolection  moulding. 


■ 
1 

Fig.  1208. — Section  through 

Weather     Bar,  showing 

Weathering  for  Bottom 
Rail  of  Door. 


Fig.  1209.— Weather  Joint 
between  Bottom  Rail  of 
Side  Framing  and  Stone 
Sill. 


Fig.  1210. — Section  through  Panels  and  Bolection 
Moulding. 

Fig.  1211  shows  a  section  of  the  architrave 
moulding,  wh  ch  is  in.  wide  and  IJ  in. 
thick  (reduced  at  the  front  edge  to  f  in.)  ; 
plinth  blocks,  12  in.  deep,  receive  the  ends 


Fig.  1206.— Section  through  Entrance  Door  and 
Framing. 


weather  bar  as  shown  in  Fig.  1208,  which  is 
sunk  and  cemented  \  in.  into  the  3-in. 
stone  step.     A  similar  bar  is  let  in  under 


Fig.  1211. — Section  of  Architrave  Moulding. 

of  the  moulding,  beyond  which  they  should 
show  \  in.  margin  at  the  front  and  ends,  and 
in.  in  front  of  beads  both  ways.  The 
rods  having  been  prepared,  the  work  can 
be  proceeded  with.  The  frame  will  be 
made  first.    The  selection  of  the  stuff  is 


368 


CARPENTKY  AND  JOINERY. 


sometimes  left  to  the  workman,  and,  as  the 
jambs  are  out  of  5 J  in.  by  3  in.,  it  will  mean 
one  rip  down  an  11 -in.  by  3-in.  plank.  In 
some  shops  this  size  of  stuff  is  kept  ready  for 
use.  The  correct  lengths  for  cutting  will  be 
ascertained  from  the  drawings,  to  which  an 
inch  or  so  must  be  added.  The  planing  up 
must  be  done  true  and  parallel,  and  in  favour 
of  the  sticking  side ;  the  backs  that  go 
next   the   brickwork,   etc.,   need   not  be 


Fig.  1212. — Application  of  Slip  for  Setting  Out 
Shoulders  for  Ovolo  Edge  of  Posts  and 
Muntins. 

touched,  except  for  jacking  over  where  the 
mortice  gauge  is  run  down. 

Frame  and  Linings. — Many  of  the  pro- 
cesses involved  in  setting  out  and  making  the 
frame  have  already  been  explained  in  con- 
nection with  cases  previously  treated.  Thus, 


Fig.  1213. — Application  of  Slip  for  Setting  Out 
Shoulders  to  fit  to  Rebates. 

it  will  only  be  necessary  to  explain  the  new 
features.  Only  the  sight  lines,  not  the 
shoulders,  may  be  taken  from  the  rod.  The 
sight  lines  are  the  distances  between  the 
intersection  of  the  square  part  of  the 
frame  as  indicated  at  a  in  Figs.  1212  and 
1213.  Then  by  means  of  a  prepared  slip, 
mark  out  for  the  moulding  and  rebate  as 
follows  :  Now  apply  the  slip  with  one  edge 
against  the  sight  line  a  (Fig.  1212)  ;  then, 
pricking  off  the  breadth,  as  indicated  at 
c,  gives  the  point  through  which  the  shoulder 


can  be  scribed,  as  shown  at  d  (Fig.  1214). 
Then  turn  the  stile  with  the  rebated  edge 
upwards,  and  mark  for  the  shoulder  in  a 
similar  manner  to  that  shown  in  Figs.  1213 
and  1215. 

Setting  Out  Frame. — Take  a  thin  slip  of 
wood  about  9  in.  long,  planed  up  |-  in.  thick, 
and  gauged  off  to  1 J  in.  (the  extent  to  which 
the  ovolo  works  on)  for  3  in.  along  it ;  then 
gauge  -^f  in.  for  another  2  in.,  which  equals 


Fig.  1214.— Shoulders  Set  Out  on  Moulded 
Edge. 

the  depth  the  ovolo  works  down  ;  then  gauge 
J  in.  for  the  last  3  in.,  equal  to  the  depth  the 
rebate  is  worked  down  for  the  doors  ;  these 
should  be  accurately  cut  away  down  to  the 
gauge  lines,  then  the  slip  will  have  the 
appearance  shown  in  Fig.  1216.  Lay  one 
jamb  on  the  bench,  mark  and  square  off 


Fig.  1215.— Shoulder  Set  Out  for  Rebated 
Edge. 

with  the  knife  the  line  to  cut  off  at  bottom 
mark  off  above  this  7  ft.  (the  height  of 
transom  rail),  then  2f  in.  (the  finished  thick 
ness  of  transom  rail)  ;  above  this  mark 
1  ft.  6  in.,  and  the  head  is  reached.  Mark 
the  other  jamb  and  the  two  mullions  from 
this,  of  course  using  the  sUp  for  the  shoulder 
of  the  muntin ;  and  at  the  point  where  the 
transom  line  crosses  the  mullions  cut  the  latter 
in  halves  just  midway  between  the  shoulders. 
Allow  for  the  shoulders  on  the  jambs  and 
mullions  by  using  the  yf-in.  portion  of  the 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


369 


slip  (the  depth  the  ovolo  drops  down)  on 
the  face  edge  and  the  J-in.  portion  (the  depth 
of  the  rebate)  on  the  back  edge.  The  jambs 
must  be  squared  round  in  pencil  at  the  point 
where  the  transom  enters,  and  room  must 
be  allowed  for  wedging  at  the  back.  Now 


Fig.  1216. 


-Setting  Out  Slip  for  Moulding  and 
Rebate  for  Frame. 


lay  the  head  face  upon  the  bench  (it  will 
have  been  cut  ofi  to  about  7  ft.  6  in.  long), 
square  a  line  across  it  6  in.  from  the  end 
(this  is  the  allowance  for  horn  and  mortice), 
set  ofi  1  ft.  6  in.,  then  the  thickness  of 
muUion,  then  3  ft.,  again  the  thickness  of 
mullion,  and  finally  1  ft.  6  in.,  leaving  the 
other  horn  and  mortice.  Set  out  the  tran- 
som from  this,  using  the  slips  at  the  ends  in 
the  same  way  as  with  the  jambs  ;  square 
round  in  pencil  for  the  mortices  and  wedging 
room  on  the  head  ;  but  in  the  case  of  the 
transom  the  mortices  will  require  marking 
square  across  on  the  top  and  under  side  with 
the  knife.  Now,  with  a  mortice  gauge  set  to 
the  flat  portion  of  jamb,  gauge  both  back 
and  front  faces  for  mortices,  and  all  round 
the  ends  for  tenons.  Set  gauges  to  the  slips, 
and  run  these  down  the  stuff,  the  in. 
down  the  face  edge,  the  IJ  in.  down  the 


Fig.  1217.— Piece  of  Frame  :  the  End  Set  Out  for 
Moulding  and  Rebate,  and  Ploughed  for 
Rebating  and  Moulding. 

face  from  both  edges,  and  the  J  in.  down  the 
back  edge,  these  lines  being  for  moulding 
and  rebate. 

Mortising  and  Tenoning  Frame. — The 
tenons  should  be  cut  down  to  the  shoulder 

16* 


lines  with  a  half-rip  saw  outside  the  gauge 
lines  and  shoulder  to  within  J  in.  of  saw 
cut.  Mortices  should  be  cut  through  square 
and  true  inside  the  gauge  lines,  and  J-in. 
wedging  room  cut  through  straight  and  to 
within  about  1  in.  of  face. 

Rebating.  —  Before  rebating  the  frame, 
plough,  with  a  f-in.  iron,  the  back  side  for 
the  inside  linings,  then,  with  the  same  iron 
set  to  yg-  in.,  plough  from  the  back  edge  for 
the  rebate  to  within  in.  of  the  gauge  line. 
Chop  out  the  intervening  wood  ;  finish  down 
to  gauge  Hue  with  a  rebate  plane,  using  the 
J-in.  end  of  the  slip  to  see  that  the  correct 
depth  is  maintained  on  the  back. 

Moulding. — As  it  would  probably  be  difli- 
cult  to  obtain  an  ovolo  plane  of  the  size  re- 


Fig.  1218. — Finishing  Ovolo  Mould  with  Hollows. 

quired  for  this  job,  the  moulding  must  be 
worked  with  hollows  (unless  it  be  machine 
made)  ;  and,  to  ensure  accuracy,  a  zinc 
or  cardboard  template  must  be  provided 
with  which  to  mark  the  ends  of  the  stuff. 
Plough  grooves  should  be  made  as  in- 
dicated at  A  and  B  (Fig.  1217)  ;  then  waste 
c  cut  away  with  a  chisel.  Work  as  near 
the  line  as  possible  with  a  jack  plane.  The 
round  of  the  mould  can  be  finished  with 
hollows,  as  indicated  at  Fig.  1218.  At  least 
two  should  be  used,  the  shape  of  the  mould- 
ing being  elliptical.  Of  course,  in  most  large 
shops  the  moulding  and  rebating  would  be 
done  at  the  machine,  and  only  finished  by 
hand.  Assuming  that  the  mouldings  are 
all  worked  and  the  top  edge  of  the  tran- 
som is  weathered,  the  sawing  down  of  the 
tenon  cheeks  may  be  finished,  the  cheeks 
knocked  off,  and  the  mitering  proceeded 
with. 


370 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Mitering. — From  the  pattern  of  the  mould- 
ing a  reverse  mould,  about  8  in.  or  9  in. 
long,  should  be  worked  (see  Fig.  1219),  and 
accurate  mitres  shot  at  each  end.  This  will 
form  the  template  with  which  to  cut  all 
mitres.  Great  care  must  be  taken  in  this 
operation,  the  chisel  not  being  allowed  to  go 
the  least  bit  beyond  the  Hne  cut  by  the 


Measuring  for  Doors  and  Lights. — Before 
removing  the  frame  from  the  bench,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  take  the  measurements  for 
constructing  the  doors  and  lights.  The 
proper  way  to  do  this  is  to  set  out  the  dead 
heights  and  widths  on  a  lath.  It  should  be 
done  very  accurately,  to  avoid  subsequent 
errors.    This  lath  will  alsofbe  found  useful 


Fig.  1219.— 
Mitering 
Template. 


Fig.  1221.— Setting  Out 
Slip  for  Ovolo  and 
Rebate  of  Door. 


setting-out  knife.  The  parts  of  the  frame 
here  referred  to  as  requiring  mitering  and 
fitting  together  are  shown  by  the  enlarged 
conventional  view.  Fig.  1220. 

Putting  Together  Frame. — The  jambs 
should  be  bored  for  drawing  ;  and  the  tenons 
of  the  mullions,  where  they  butt-joint  in  the 
transom  rail,  should  be  bored  for  and  held 
together  with  f  in.  glued  oak  or  pitch  pine 
dowels.  The  frame  can  now  be  put  to- 
gether, pinned,  and  wedged  up,  then  cleaned 
ofi,  and  the  plough  groove  run  along  the 
head  for  the  casing  Mitre  the  cove  round 
the  rame,  square  the  bottoms  of  jambs 
and  mullions,  and  up  the  centre  of  each  bore 
a  f-in.  hole,  and  drive  in  square  galvanised 
iron  dowels,  leaving  |-in.  projections,  which 
will  be  subsequently  let  into  the  step.  The 
frame  is  now  finished; 


Fig.  1220.— Conventional  View 
of  the  Joints  connecting  the 
Parts  of  the  Frame. 


in  cutting  ofi  the  stuff.  Door  stiles  and 
rails  should  be  made  from  stuff  2  in.  thick, 
the  bars  from  f-in.  stuff  ;  and,  in  planing 
up,  the  best  sides  should,  as  far  as  possible, 
be  selected  for  working  the  mouldings. 
After  cutting  the  door  stiles  to  the  dimin- 
ished size  they  should  be  planed  up,  and 
the  tried-up  mark  put  on  the  back  edge, 
as  an  indication  of  the  stage  to  which  the 
work  has  been  brought. 

Setting  Out  Doors  and  Lights. — The  stuff 
for  the  top  lights  must  be  gauged  to  2f  iu. 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


371 


by  IJ  in.  ;  for  door  and  side  light  rails,  lOJ 
in.  by  IJ  in.  ;  for  the  diminishing  stiles  for 
doors,  41  in.  to  2f  in.  by  1 J  in.  ;  for  the  side 
lights,  4  in.  to  2|  in.  by  1|  in.  ;  bars,  If  in. 
by  f  in.  In  setting  out  the  stiles  of  the  door, 
mark  off  on  the  back  edge  of  one  of  them 
the  dead  height  of  the  door  from  the  rod, 
a'lowing  J  in.  for  fitting.  Then  mark  on 
2|  in.  for  the  top  rail,  lOJ  in.  for  the  bottom 
rail ;  and  3  ft.  2  in.  from  the  bottom  set  off 
10 J  in.,  which  will  be  the  top  edge  of  the  lock 
rail ;  2  in.  from  the  inside  marks  of  the  top 
and  lock  rails,  mark  f-in.  spaces  for  the 
transverse  marginal  bars.  The  marks  must 
be  squared  round  to  the  inside  edge,  and 
wedging  room  allowed  on  the  back.  Mark 


rebate  ;  c  equals  the  depth  of  the  rebate 
for  bars — namely,  in  this  case,  yV  in.  In 
setting  out  the  vertical  marginal  bars,  from 
the  back  edge  of  the  pattern  stile  set  out 
one  bar,  then,  placing  it  on  the  outside  of 
the  remainder  of  the  bars,  cramp  them  all 
together,  and  square  across  both  sides  for 
mortices  and  tenons  ;  note  that  the  shoulders 
should  be  a  shade  long.  These  may  now 
be  set  on  one  side ;   but  later,  when  the 


E 

1 

!  ° 

=4 

D 

Fig.  1222.— Part  Views  of  Lock  Rail  and  Dimin- 
ished Stile  of  Door,  indicating  Method  of 
Setting  Out. 

the  3^2-in.  portion  of  the  slip  (Fig.  1221) 
inside  the  top  edge  of  the  lock  rail  and  the 
bottom  edge  of  the  top  rail,  this  being  the 
depth  the  ovolo  mould  works  down,  also  the 
depth  of  the  rebate.  From  this  pattern 
stile,  the  other  door  stile  and  the  stiles  of  the 
side  lights,  must  be  set  out  altogether  and 
in  pairs.  Previous  to  setting-out,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  make  the  sHp  (Fig.  1221)  for 
setting-out  purposes.  This  slip,  it  need  not  be 
said,  must  agree  in  essential  particulars  with 
the  proposed  moulding  and  rebate.  Assum- 
ing that  the  mould  selectied  works  |  in.  on 
and  /o-  in.  down,  the  sUp,  when  made,  will 
have  the  appearance  shown,  and  may  be 
explained  thus  :  A  equals  the  depth  the 
ovolo  works  on  ;  b  equals  the  depth  the  ovolo 
works  down,  and  is  also  the  depth  of  the 


mortice  gauge  is  set,  run  it  round  them  as 
they  are,  and  cut  the  shoulders  with  a  dove- 
tail saw,  proper  haunchings  being  left  in  all 
cases.  Rails  of  doors  and  lights  should  be 
set  out  from  the  rod,  the  width  of  stiles 
set  back,  and  the  width  of  the  slip  at  b  set 
forward,  and  the  shoulders  squared  round, 
the  setting  out  of  these  being  done  as  de- 
scribed in  connection  with  Figs.  1198  to  1200. 
Cross  bars  may  be  set  out  from  this,  allow- 
ing them  to  be  slightly  longer  for  good 
joints.  The  setting  out  of  the  top  lights 
is  a  simple  matter,  the  height  of  the  stiles 


372 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


being  marked  from  the  rod.  Below  is  the 
method  of  setting  out  the  lock  rail,  the 
letters  corresponding  to  those  in  Fig.  1222, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  an  inside  view, 
the  opposite  end  to  the  lock  ;  it  is  therefore 
not  double-tenoned  :  a  is  the  shoulder  line 
under  side  of  rail ;  b  is  the  vertical  hne  with 
A ;  B  to  c  is  the  difierence  between  width 
of  stile  at  top  and  bottom— namely  If  in.  ; 
c  to  D  is  the  depth  the  ovolo  works  down  ; 
E  to  A  is  the  shoulder  line.  In  setting  out 
mark  A  on  bottom  of  rail  and  B  on  top,  set  on 
c  and  D  with  the  slip  ;  gauge  down  to  e 
and  mark  e  to  A.  In  setting  out  the  dimin- 
ishing stiles,  F  is  the  point  where  the  bottom 


Fig.  1223. — Views  showing  Haunching  and  Scribing 
between  Top  Rail  and  Stile. 


of  the  rail  joins  the  stile,  and  corresponds 
with  A  ;  G  is  the  point  where  the  top  of  the 
rail  joins  the  stile,  and  corresponds  with  c  ; 
H  is  the  point  where  the  shoulder  Hne  com- 
mences ;  I  is  the  depth  the  ovolo  works 
down  ;  k  is  the  surplus  stuff  on  the  edge  of 
the  stile  ;  L  is  the  point  of  intersection  of  H 
and  I ;  l  to  F  is  the  shoulder  line.  In 
setting  out,  proceed  as  follows  :  Mark  f  and 
G,  mark  h  on  with  the  slip,  run  the  gauge 
line  down  i ;  also  from  the  point  where  H 
and  I  connect  l  and  f.  In  making  the  joint 
after  mortising,  tenoning,  moulding,  and 
ploughing  are  done — at  the  point  e  on  the 
rail,  pare  down  square  to  the  tenon  before 
scribing  the  ovolo.  After  the  surplus  stuff 
K  on  the  stile  has  been  cut  away  and  the 
shoulder  cut  and  pared  true,  cut  out  the 
groove  for  the  haunching.  The  ovolo  will 
require  working  with  gouges  up  to  the  point 
L  on  the  stile,  and  the  rebate  must  be  pared 
out  with  the  chisel  up  to  the  same  point. 
Fig.  1206  shows  a  section  through  the  door 


and  framing  and  fanlight,  also  the  lintel 
and  finishings  inside  the  door  frame,  of 
which  a  plan  is  shown  by  Fig.  1207. 

Mortising  and  Tenoning  Door. — The  setting 
out  having  been  completed,  the  stuff  must 
be  gauged  for  mortices  and  tenons,  the 
mortice  gauge  being  set  for  a  f-in.  chisel, 
and  the  nearest  prick  mark  from  the  face 
being  set  to  the  slip  at  h.  One  end  of 
the  lock  rail  and  the  corresponding  stile 
of  the  door  must  be  gauged  for  double 
tenons  as  in  the  previous  example,  the 
gauge  being  set  for  a  fV"i^-  chisel,  and 
^  in.  from  face  for  one  tenon  and  mortice 
and  IJ  in.  from  the  face  for  the  other.  The 
mortices  being  made  and  tenons  cut  down 
to  the  home  line,  the  shoulders  may  be 
partly  cut  in.  The  stuff  may  now  be  rebated 
for  the  glass,  using  a  sash  fillister,  and  the 
ovolo  worked  on  each  portion  at  the  same 
time,  using  No.  1  moulding  plane  first,  and 
finishing  off  with  No.  2.  The  bars  must  be 
worked  on  a  sticking  board,  which  may  be 
made  from  a  piece  of  7-in.  by  IJ-in.  stuff 
about  6  ft.  long.  The  bars  are  held  in  posi- 
tion against  a  screw  stop  at  one  end,  and 
by  a  bench  knife  at  the  other.  The  stiles 
should  be  ploughed  for  the  panels,  the  tenon 
cheeks  cut  off,  and  the  tenons  cut  to  fit 
the  mortices,  proper  haunchings  being 
allowed. 

Haunching,  Scribing,  etc. — The  ends  of  the 
rails  for  haunching  and  scribing  purposes 
are  shown  by  Fig.  1223.  These  have  been 
described  and  illustrated  in  Figs.  1196  to 
1198 ;  A  equals  the  portion  cut  back  on 
the  end  of  the  rails  to  the  depth  of  the 
rebate  to  fit  round  the  square  left  on  after 
moulding  and  rebating  at  b  on  the  stile  ; 
c  is  a  face  view  of  the  rail  with  dotted 
lines  showing  the  direction  and  extent 
of  the  cutting  back  at  a.  The  rails  only 
require  partly  scribing  through  as  shown  at 
E  (Fig.  1223),  and  a  piece  will  be  required 
to  be  taken  out  of  the  stiles  to  correspond 
with  the  square  shoulder  above  these.  The 
scribing  may  now  be  done,  and  particular 
attention  must  be  paid  to  the  intersection  of 
the  lock  rail  and  stile  at  e  and  H  in  Fig. 
1222.  The  scribing  templates  and  gouges 
will  of  course  be  required  for  this  process. 

Panels. — The  doors  and  lights  may  now 
be  knocked  together,  and  the  size  of  the 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


373 


panels  obtained.  Face  up  the  back  sides 
of  the  panels  ;  mark  equal  width  between 
the  stiles,  and  gauge  the  edges  for  the  distance 
between  the  top  of  bottom  rail  and  the 
bottom  of  lock  rail.  Set  a  mortice  gauge  to 
B  c  (Fig.  1222)  and  run  all  round.  Work  down 
to  c  across  endwise  with  a  saw,  and  with  a 
rebate  plane  and  side  filHster  with  the- grain. 
Rebate  out  for  letting  in  flush  beads  e  across 
endwise,  and  prepare  and  fix  these  beads 
up  to  the  dotted  Hues.  Square  across  at 
A  and  gauge  the  corresponding  widths 
down  both  sides.  Cut  down  from  A  to  d 
with  the  tenon  saw,  and  remove  the  waste 
portions.  The  corresponding  portions  with 
the  grain  should  be  ploughed  and  knocked 
off  with  mallet  and  chisel ;  afterwards  clean 
off  and  smooth  up  with  shoulder  and  smooth- 
ing plane.  Note  that  the  margin  from  b  to  d 
should  be  slightly  bevelled  towards  B  ;  this 
permits  the  bolection  moulding  to  be  planted 
solid  in  front.  Of  course,  a  thinner  panel 
may  be  preferred  to  the  bead  and  flush 
described,  with  a  moulding  planted  round 
inside,  but  that  is  optional.  When  the 
panels  are  prepared,  knock  off  a  stile  on  one 
side  of  framing,  put  in  the  panel,  and  re- 
place the  stile. 

Completing  Front-entrance  Door  and 
Frame. — The  doors  and  hghts  may  now  be 
glued,  cramped,  and  wedged  up  and  cleaned 
off,  and  the  bolection  mouldings  mitred 
and  planted  in.  The  frame  having  been 
fixed,  the  bottom  and  top  side  lights  must 
be  fitted  to  a  joint  (the  bottom  rails  of  the 
side  lights  being  ploughed  for  the  water  bar), 
but  the  rebates  and  edges  should  be  well 
painted  before  nailing.  The  fanlight  must 
be  fitted  so  that  it  will  swing,  and  it  should 
be  hung  with  two  3J-in.  wrought-iron  butts 
on  the  bottom  edge,  being  kept  in  position 
and  made  to  swing  by  using  a  patent 
quadrant  fastener.  In  fitting  the  door,  suf- 
ficient play  must  be  allowed  for  it  to  open 
and  shut  easily,  and  it  should  be  hung  with 
three  4-in.  wrought-iron  butt  hinges.  A 
7-in.  mortice  lock  should  be  fitted,  and,  to 
facilitate  the  letting  in  of  this  lock,  the  end 
of  the  lock  rail  should  be  bored  before  the 
door  is  put  together.  To  do  this,  bore  the 
first  hole  to  a  depth  of  about  3  in.,  fill  it  up 
again  with  an  easily  fitting  piece  of  round 
stuff  (prepare  a  piece  sufficient  to  make 


half  a  dozen),  and  cut  off  long  enough  to 
stand  up  about  J  in.,  to  allow  grip  with 
pincers  ;  bore  the  second  hole  on  the  circum- 
ference of  the  first.  Then  withdraw  the 
first  core  by  gripping  with  pincers,  and  fill 
up  the  second  hole  ;  bore  the  third  hole  on 
the  circumference  of  the  second,  and  then 
remove  the  second  core,  and  so  on.  When 
finished,  it  will  be  found  that  there  is  com- 
paratively little  stuff  left  to  clear  out.  It 
is  obvious  that  it  would  be  impossible  to 
bore  so  much  out  if  temporary  cores  were 
not  put  in  ;  moreover,  the  bit  has  a  ten- 
dency to  run  into  the  adjoining  hole  when 
the  holes  are  bored  too  close  together.  The 
size  of  bit  to  use  in  this  case  will  be  |  in. 
The  bottom  rail  of  the  door  must  be  rebated 
for  the  water  bar,  also  throated.  This  bar 
is  only  inserted  in  exposed  situations,  or 
where  there  is  no  portico.  It  keeps  the  rain 
from  getting  under  the  door,  and  should 
not  therefore,  from  the  fear  that  it  may 
become  a  stumbling  block,  be  omitted. 
The  linings  will  be  prepared  from  the  draw- 
ings, and  are  tongued  together  at  the  top, 
and  fixed  securely  to  wood  pads  or  bricks 
built  in  the  wall.  The  pHnth  blocks  being 
fixed  at  the  bottom,  and  the  architrave 
moulding  mitred  at  the  corners  and  fixed 
round,  will  complete  the  job. 

Double = margin  Doors 

Double-margin  doors  are  generally  used 
when  a  door  opening  is  wide  in  propor- 
tion to  its  height.  They  are  framed  as 
one  piece  and  then  hung.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  panels  varies  according  to 
the  taste  of  the  architect  or  the  design 
of  the  building  in  which  the  door  is  placed. 
The  example  shown  in  Fig.  1224  is  a  door  for 
an  opening  7  ft.  3  in.  high  and  4  ft.  1  in. 
wide.  The  panels  have  been  arranged  to  be 
of  equal  size,  while  the  framing  shows  an 
equal  margin  except  in  the  case  of  the 
bottom  rail.  In  one  method  of  construction 
the  middle  stile  is  in  two  separate  pieces, 
in  which  case  there  are  really  two  separate 
leaves  joined  to  make  a  single  door  ;  or 
the  middle  stile  can  be  in  one  piece,  in 
which  case  it  assumes  more  of  the  character 
of  a  muntin  than  of  a  stile.  In  Fig.  1225, 
which  represents  a  horizontal  section  through 
the  panels  of  Fig.  1224,  the  door  is  shown 


Fig.  1226.— Plan  showing  Centre  Stile  Fitted 
Over  Top  Rail. 


Fig.  1227. — View  of  Top  Rail  prepared  to 
receive  End  of  Centre  Stile. 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


375 


with  the  middle  stile  in  two  pieces,  but  the 
elevation  remains  the  same  for  either 
method.  When  the  middle  stile  is  con- 
structed in  two  portions,  each  half  of  the 


Fig.  1228. — Securing  Intermediate  Rails  by 
Fox  Wedging. 

door  is  framed  together,  but  not  glued 
up.  Then  the  rails  are  glued  and  wedged 
to  each  half  of  the  middle  stile  and  allowed 
to  dry.  The  two  halves  of  the  middle  stile 
are  then  shot  and  fitted.  The  ends  of  the 
tenons  to  the  rails  should  be  cut  J  in. 
below  the  joining  surfaces  of  the  middle 
stile,  so  as  to  prevent  the  joint  being  forced 


Fig.  1229. — Horizontal  Section  through  Centre 
Stiles  when  in  Two  Pieces. 


in  case  of  shrinkage.  Fig.  1226  is  a  plan 
of  the  top  rail.  When  the  middle  stile  is  in 
one  piece,  the  top  and  bottom  rails  are  con- 
tinuous, and  fit  over  the  middle  stile  by  the 
use  of  a  bridle  joint,  similar  to  that  shown 
in  Fig.  1227.  To  prevent  the  shoulders 
rising  one  above  the  other,  cross  tongues 
can  be  used  as  shown.  The  same  plan  of 
joining  the  top  and  bottom  rails  to  the 
middle  stile  can  be  adopted  when  the  stile 
is  in  two  pieces.  As  the  tenons  in  the  middle 
stile  cannot  be  wedged  in  the  ordinary  way, 
it  is  best  to  fox-wedge  them  as  shown  in 
Fig.  1228,  to  prevent  the  shoulder  joints 
from  starting  (a  section  on  the  line  a  b 
is    shown   by   Fig.    1229).     Further  to 


strengthen  double-margin  doors,  iron  bars 
are  sometimes  let  into  the  top  and  bottom 
rails,  and  screwed  to  them.  In  this  case 
the  bars  should  stop  short  of  each  edge  of 
the  door,  so  as  not  to  show  on  the  edge. 
Another  and  more  general  method  of  con- 
structing a  double-margin  door  will  be  ex- 
plained in  a  later  example. 

Composite  Door. 

This  class  of  door  is  unusual  in  ordinary 
joinery  work,  but  is  occasionally  employed 
for  showing  two  classes  of  treatment  in 
detail.  This  is  essentially  a  soft  pine  door, 
with  a  veneered  oak  face,  the  oak  face  being 
on  the  room  side,  so  as  to  correspond  with 
oak  furniture  and  fittings  ;  the  pine,  finished 
with  either  white  or  cream  enamel,  faces  a 
corridor.  The  centre  panel  on  the  painted 
side  of  the  door  forms  a  notice-board  for 
posting  lecture  announcements,  etc.,  as  in 
a  school  of  science  or  college  laboratory. 
Fig.  1231  (scale  =  ^  in.  to  1  ft.)  represents 
an  elevation  of  the  corridor  side  (painted), 
and  Fig.  1232  a  vertical  section  through  door 
and  opening.  Fig.  1233  shows  the  room  side, 
with  the  oak  face  with  round-edged  framing 
and  raised  panel.  Two  methods  of  con- 
struction are  illustrated  by  Figs.  1234  and 
1235  ;    the  former  shows  the  pine  stiles, 

Fig.  1230. — Horizontal  Section  through  Panels, 
Moulding,  etc. 

etc.,  containing  the  oak  sandwiched  between 
them.  The  two  faces  of  the  oak  are  glued 
simultaneously,  and  pressed  between  the 
pine  by  suitable  shop  methods  ;  then,  when 
the  work  is  thoroughly  dry,  it  is  ripped  down 
by  hand,  or  sawn  down  the  middle  with  a 
circular  saw,  forming  two  stiles,  etc.  When 
the  door  is  framed  up,  glued  up,  and  partly 
cleaned  off,  the  lock  stile  is  veneered  on  the 
edge  ;  the  tenons  being  well  cut  back,  for 
obvious  reasons.  The  hinge  stile  is  not  ve- 
neered. Fig.  1235  shows  an  alternative  way 
of  treating  the  stiles,  the  detail  showing  the 
edge  veneered  first  and  then  the  face.  Of 
course  the  tenons  on  this  side  will  be  blind, 
but  will  run  through  the  hinge  stile.  All 


376 


CARPENTKY  AND  JOINERY. 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


377 


glue  surfaces  should  be  toothed  on  the  veneer- 
ing faces  ;  the  sponge  and  hot  water  are 
freely  used  on  the  work  in  progress  if  perfect 
joints  are  required  ;  and  the  work  must  be 
done  in  a  warm  temperature. 

Panels,  etc.,  of  Composite  Door. — The 
panels  are  double  (composite),  oak  and  pine, 


Fig.  1234.  Fig.  1235. 

Figs.  1234  and  1235.— Isometric  Details  of  Methods 
of  Jointing  Oak  for  Door. 


Fig.  1236.— Sectional  Fig.  1237.— Detail 

Detail  of  Frieze  Rail,  showing  Shutting 

showing  Double  Stile  Veneered  on 

Panels.  Edge. 

with  a  composite  centre  panel  covered  with 
green  or  dark  red  baize,  to  receive  the  notices, 
etc.  On  the  oak  side  the  panels  are  raised, 
with  a  bead  on  the  flat  as  shown,  to  be 
worked  in  the  solid.  Figs.  1236  and  1238  show 
clearly  the  panelling  and  framing.  All  panels 
must  have  glued  pine  blocks  (dry)  between 
them,  as  usual  in  double-panelled  doors  of 
thin  sectioned  panels.  The  rounded  edge 
to  the  framing  of  the  oak  side  will  be  found 
to  accentuate  the  raised  panels,  without  mak- 
ing the  door  too  bold  on  the  interior  or 
room  side.  The  panels  on  the  painted  side 
have  ordinary  ovolo  mouldings  glued  and 


sprigged  to  the  framing  (not  to  the  panels). 
The  mou  dings  to  the  baize-covered  panel 
are  neatly  held  in  place  with  small  brass  cups 
and  screws,  to  allow  the  easy  removal  of  the 
baize  when  worn  or  damaged.  Figs.  1238 
and  1239  show  sections  of  the  architraves 
(oak  and  deal),  the  panelled  jambs,  pHnths, 
blocks,  etc.,  of  the  oak  face.  All  mitres  on 
the  oak  side  must  be  well  glued,  screwed, 
and  pelleted.  The  coke  breeze  lintel  over  the 
door  opening  (Fig.  1238)  is  reinforced  'with 


Figs.  1238  and  1239. — Details  of  Architraves  and 
Top  Rail  of  Door  in  Section. 

expanded  metal.  The  silver-grain  of  the 
oak  is  shown  to  its  best  advantage  by  arrang- 
ing to  have  either  fine-grained  framing  and 
coarse-grained  panels,  or  the  reverse.  All 
the  architraves  must  be  dovetailed  to  phnth 
blocks.  The  shutting  stile  is  prepared  for  a 
mortice  lock  ;  and  the  door  is  hung  with  steel 
bushed  brass  hinges.  The  tenons  double 
at  every  joint  in  the  framing.  The  edges  of 
the  deal  jambs  in  which  the  door  shuts  are 
stained  oak  colour.  The  hinge  side  is  painted 
to  match  the  exterior  face. 

Baize = covered  Doors. 

Two  methods  of  constructing  baize- 
covered  doors  will  now  be  described.  Flat 
surfaces  on  each  side  of  the  door  are  usual, 
but  a  flush-panel  door  will  answer  admirably 


378 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


if  the  flush  side  only  is  required  to  be 
covered.  Figs.  1240  and  1241  show  respec- 
tively front  elevation  and  section,  and  it 
will  be  seen  that  in  order  to  lighten  the 
door,  J-in.  full  panels  (from  f-in.  stuff  in 
the  rough)  are  used,  double  or  flush  each  side. 
To  stiffen  these  panels,  |-in.  thick  by  6-in. 
wide  cross-rails  are  tenoned  into  muntins 


Fig.  1240.  Fig.  1241. 

Fig.  1240.— Front  Elevation  of  Double-panel  Baize- 
covered  Door. 
Fig.  1241.— Vertical  Section  (Fig.  1240). 

and  side  stiles  respectively,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
1242,  which  shows  also  the  back  rebating  of 
the  panels.  The  panels  are  centrally  screwed 
to  these  stiffeners,  thus  allowing  freedom 
for  shrinkage  from  sides  to  middle.  The 
tenons  are  of  the  usual  kind  for  this  class  of 
door.  Figs.  1243  and  1244  show,  an  alterna- 
tive method  of  construction,  which  would 
be  cheaper  if  machine-worked  stuff  were  used. 
The  framing  is  mortised  and  tenoned,  and 
is  covered  on  both  sides  with  tongued  and 
grooved  boards  forming  the  flush  faces  of 
the  door.    Bracing  can  be  used,  but  if  the 


boards  are  partly  glued  on,  the  door  will  be 
found  to  be  sufficiently  rigid,  and  free  from 
any  tendency  to  drop.  Fig.  1245  shows  a  top 
corner,  and  indicates  the  method  of  con- 
struction. 

Covering  Doors  with  Baize. — The  cover- 
ing applied  to  this  class  of  door  should  be  of 
the  best  quality  procurable,  and  should  be 
obtained  of  such  a  width  as  to  prevent  waste. 
It  is  fastened  on  with  stout  tacks  into  plough 
grooves  on  the  edges  and  at  the  sides,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  1246,  which  represents  a  hori- 


Fig.  1242. — Cross  Rail  acting  as  Stiflfener  to 
Panels. 

zontal  section  of  door  stiles  for  a  swing  door, 
the  edges  of  which  should  preferably  be 
rounded  slightly,  to  prevent  the  baize  from 
being  cut  by  the  stretching  process.  It  is 
customary  to  line  out  the  panels  by  means  of 
round-headed  brass  nails  of  French  manu- 
facture, and  further  to  elaborate  the  baize 
by  using  green  tape  of  a  lighter  or  darker 
tint  (see  Fig.  1247) ;  but  these  are  matters  of 
taste.  The  tape  is  neatly  nailed  to  chalk 
Hnes  sprung  at  the  proper  spacing,  and 
should  be  kept  moderately  taut  while  nail- 
ing on.  In  the  case  of  the  double-panel 
door,  the  nails  should,  if  possible,  clear  the 
groove.  If  baize-covered  doors  are  used  in 
entrances  near  the  street,  they  are  apt  to 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


379 


harbour  dust,  and  to  be  spattered  with  mud, 
and  the  lower  part  of  doors  in  this  situation 
should  be  covered  with  an  oak  board  about 
J  in.  thick,  and  of  any  suitable  width,  and 
painted  to  match. 

Circular  Doors. 

The  door  (Fig.  1248)  about  to  be  described 
is  on  plan  curved  to  a  2-ft.  radius,  but  it 


glass  can  be  replaced  when  necessary  with- 
out injuring  the  door  or  beads.    Fig.  1251 


Fig.  1243.  Fig.  1244, 

Fig.  1243. — Elevation  showing  Alternate  Methods 
of  Constructing  Baize-covered  Door. 

Fig.  1244.— Vertical  Section  (Fig.  1243). 

may,  of  course,  have  any  sweep  desired.  It 
should  always  be  set  out  from  a  centre,  as  the 
shoulder  lines  will  be  struck  from  the  centre 
point.  The  panels  are  bead  flush,  with  bolec- 
tion  moulding  mitered  round  the  front  as 
shown  in  plan  by  Fig.  1249,  also  by  Fig.  1250, 
which  is  an  enlarged  section  at  the  top  edge 
of  the  bottom  rail,  with  the  panel  and  mould- 
ing on  the  outside  and  the  bead  flush  on  the 
inside.  The  top  space  is  left  for  glass,  which 
is  secured  by  means  of  beads  screwed  round 
the  stiles  and  rails  ;  by  this  arrangement  the 


Fig.  1245.— Detail  of  Top  Corner  (Fig.  1243). 

is  an  enlarged  section  at  the  top  edge  of  the 
middle  rail  with  the  glass  and  beads  in  posi- 
tion.   The  wood  used  in  circular  work  must 


Fig.  1246. — Fastening  Ends  of  Covering. 

be  thoroughly  seasoned  and  free  from  defects. 
In  beginning  a  job  of  this  sort,  it  is  necessary 
to  make  a  template  and  set  it  out  full  size  on 


Fig.  1247. — Covering  and  Taping  Baize. 

a  boar(J  from  a  centre.  When  this  has  been 
done,  the  ribs  may  be  prepared.    The  plank 


380 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


it  is  intended  to  use  should  be  trued  up  out 
of  winding  and  gauged  to  the  required  thick- 
ness. The  trammel  with  which  the  plan 
has  been  set  out  can  be  used  to  line  out  the 


Fig.  1248. — Front  Elevation  of  Circular  Door. 

ribs  for  the  three  rails  ;  these  can  be  cut 
out  with  a  band-saw,  or  with  a  side-saw  if  the 
former  is  not  available.  A  side-saw  (see 
Fig.  1252)  is  much  like  a  bow-saw,  only  it  is 
worked  up  and  down  ;  l  and  r  show  respec- 
tively the  position  of  left  and  right  hand 
when  using  the  saw.  The  ribs  having  been 
cut  out  and  toothed  ready  for  gluing  to- 
gether, it  will  be  seen  (Fig.  1253)  that  they  are 


Fig.  1249.— Plan  of  Door  (Fig.  1248). 


Fig.  1250.— Section 
through  Top  Edge 
of  Bottom  Rail  (Fig. 
1248). 


Fig.  1251.— Section 
through  Top  Edge 
of  Middle  Rail  (Fig. 
1248). 


1 


Fig.  1252. — Side  Saw  for  Cutting  Rails,  etc. 


Fig.  1253. — Building  Up  Rails  in  Ribs. 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


381 


butt- jointed  ;  by  this  arrangement  strength 
is  gained,  as  any  two  pieces  coming  together 
will  not  be  of  continuous  grain.  Care  must 
be  taken,  too,  to  break  the  joints  as  shown 
in  Fig.  1253.  All  the  butt  joints  may  be  cut 
before  commencing  gluing  ;  the  ends  may 
be  left  till  the  work  is  dry.  It  is  necessary  to 
warm  the  sides  that  are  to  be  glued.  All 


Fig.  1254.— Method  of  Securing  Veneer  for  Circular 
Door. 


these  joints  are  secured  by  means  of  screws 
or  nails  (screws  preferred),  care  being  taken 
that  they  are  not  in  the  way  of  the  mortices 
and  tenons. 

Panels,  etc.,  of  Circular  Doors. — The  panels 
may  be  got  out  in  widths  according  to  the 
width  of  the  finished  panel,  which  is  a  little 
over  10  in.,  so  it  may  be  made  in  three  pieces 
and  shot  to  a  proper  bevel  to  suit  the  rails, 
and  likewise  glued  and  set  aside  to  dry. 


Fig.  1255.— Joint  of  Lock  Rail  of  Circular  Door. 

The  stiles  call  for  Httle  remark  beyond  the 
setting  out  of  the  mortices,  which  are  indi- 
cated by  dotted  lines  (Fig.  1248),  where 
the  rail  is  broken  away  to  show  the  tenon 
in  position,  wedged.  The  rails  and  panels 
may  be  cleaned  ofi  to  the  template  and  taken 
true  out  of  winding  and  prepared  for  cover- 
ing with  veneer,  which   must  be  saw-cut. 


In  some  doors  or  framing  this  is  omitted. 
The  veneer  is  held  in  position  with  a  caul, 
which  is  a  piece  of  zinc  large  enough  to  cover 
the  whole  of  the  veneer  ;  pieces  of  wood, 
cut  to  fit  the  sweep,  are  then  laid  across  and 
squeezed  tightly  down  with  thumb-  or  hand- 
screws  (see  Fig.  1254).  Fig.  1255  is  an  en- 
larged isometric  drawing  of  the  joint  at  the 
middle  or  lock  rail,  showing  -iVin.  double 
tenons  with  a  f-in.  space  between  to  allow 
for  a  mortice  lock  ;  these  double  tenons  are 
only  employed  where  the  lock  is  to  be  fitted, 
the  remainder  of  the  tenons  being  single. 
All  tenons  must  be  carefully  cut  and  fitted, 
so  that  when  the  door  is  ready  to  be  wedged 
up  they  will  be  just  hand- tight,  otherwise 
the  shoulders  will  not  come  well  up.  The 
panels  are  prepared  for  veneering  in  the  same 
way  as  the  rails,  and  are  held  in  position 
with  a  tongue  that  fits  into  a  groove,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  1250.  A  small  bead  is  worked 
on  the  sides  of  the  panels,  but  those  on  the 
ends  are  mitred  and  planted  on.  The 
mouldings  and  beads  are  got  out  to  suit  the 
proper  sweeps,  and  worked  with  routers, 
which  can  be  obtained  in  sufficient  variety 
to  suit  any  kind  of  moulding. 

Double= margin  Door  with  Circular 
Frame  and  Splayed  Linings. 

The  door  and  frame  illustrated  by  Figs. 
1256  to  1272  is  a  kind  sometimes  adopted 
for  the  entrances  to  large  and  important 
buildings  in  which  it  is  more  convenient 
to  have  one  wide  door  than  two  folding 
doors,  although  when  closed  it  has  the 
appearance  of  two,  as  shown.  In  this  class 
of  building  the  door,  frame,  linings,  archi- 
traves, etc.,  are  frequently  made  of  some 
hard  wood,  such  as  oak,  mahogany,  or  teak, 
and  finished  by  french  polishing.  The 
ordinary  fixing  by  visible  nailing,  screwing, 
etc.,  is  not  permissible ;  the  holes  thus 
formed  cannot  be  stopped  with  putty  as 
for  painted  work.  This  example  will  be 
treated  so  as  to  meet  the  specification  and 
drawings  demanding  secret  fixing  as  far 
as  practicable.  The  leading  dimensions  are 
figured  on  the  drawings,  and  the  chief  new 
features  are  described  below. 

The  Rod. — For  a  job  of  this  description, 
the  rod  should  be  clearly  and  fully  set  out. 


382 


CAKPENTEY  AND  JOINEKY. 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


383 


Fig.  1259.— Inside  Elevation. 


as  an  attempt  to  save  time  here  may  lead 
to  costly  errors.  The  architect's  drawings 
should  be  carefully  consulted,  particularly 
the  enlarged  details  to  half-inch  or  larger 
scale,  together .  with  full-size  sections  of 
mouldings  and  panels,  which  are  generally 
supplied  by  leading  architects.  If  the 
building  is  sufficiently  advanced,  it  is  well 


to  test  between  the  reveals  and  the  spring- 
ing, in  case  any  sUght  discrepancy  has 
occurred  in  the  dimensions  between  the 
masonry  and  the  drawings.  From  the  in- 
formation thus  obtained,  the  rod  can  be  set 
out.  This  would  show  the  whole  of  the  plan 
or  horizontal  section  of  the  woodwork  as 
at  Fig.  1257.    A  complete  vertical  section 


384 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Tig.  1260.— Enlarged  Detail  of  Upper  Part  of 
Vertical  Section  (Fig.  1258). 


of  the  woodwork  should  be  set  out  for  the 
heights  as  at  Fig.  1258.  For  the  framing, 
the  head  and  fanhght,  the  hnings  and  archi- 
traves, a  board  should  be  used  large  enough 
to  strike  out  the  main  lines  of  each  of  these  ; 
and  it  will  be  found  very  useful  for  setting 
out  these  various  parts. 

The  Frame. — The  posts  should  be  set 
out  for  the  tenons  of  the   transom.  By 
reference  to  Figs.  1258  and  1260,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  transom  is  built  up,  and  that 
two   equal  -  sized   tenons   are   made,  the 
bottom  edges  of  which  are  level  with  the 
rebate.    The   mitering   of  the  mouldings 
between  the  posts  and  transom  is  shown 
at  Fig.  1260,  and,  as  explained  in  previous 
examples,  this  must  be  allowed  for  in  set- 
ting out.    It  should  be  noted  that  the 
tenon  to  the  inner  portion  of  the  transom  a 
(Figs.  1258  and  1260)  has  the  upper  portion 
of  it  haunched  into  the  post,  and  does 
not  have  a  tenon  the  whole  width.  The 
pieces  to  form  the  circular  head  should 
next  be  cut  out.    Make  a  template  from 
the  rod,  and   line  out  the  stuff  for  the 
head  "  full."    The  head  may  be  in  two 
pieces,  with  a  joint  at  the  crown,  or  in 
three  pieces,  which  is  perhaps  a  little  more 
economical  in  material,  but  the  former  no 
doubt  involves  less  labour  in  jointing  and 
even  in  moulding.    The  crown  joint  should 
be  accurately  made,  and  must  also  fit  when 
placed  on  the  rod.    This  joint  may  be  held 
together  by  a  hammer-headed  key  and 
tongues,  or  by  a  stout  handrail  screw  and 
dowels,  which  is  the  more  modern  method 
and  equally  effectual.    The  joints  between 
the  posts  and  head  at  the  springing  may 
be  held  together  by  handrail  screws  and 
dowels,  but  the  hammer-headed  key  tenon, 
as  illustrated  at  Fig.  1261,  is  still  in  favour. 
When  the  head  and  posts  are  tried  together, 
and  the  joints  temporarily  tightened  up, 
the  posts  must  be  quite  parallel  and  ex- 
actly the  same  distances  apart,  and  the 
joints  must  be  eased  until  thus  correct.  The 
soffit  of  the  head,  as  it  is  not  yet  trued  up, 
should  project  over  the  posts  a  little.  This 
projection  should  be  carefully  scribed  from 
the  posts,  and  then  by  means  of  a  template 
or  radius  rod  the  curve  for  the  soffit  can  be 
set  out.    It  will  be  found  an  advantage  to 
turn  the  frame  over  and  mark  the  other 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES.  385 


side  as  well.  The  pieces  can  now  be  separ- 
ated and  the  soffit  planed  to  the  lines  by 
a  compass  plane  or  other  similar  means. 
The  setting  out,  the  mortising,  and  the  tenon 


and  rounds.  For  working  the  curved 
mouldings  of  the  head,  small  hollows  and 
rounds,  known  as  thumb  planes,  or  some 
other  method,  would  be  adopted,  as  will 


Fig.  1261. — Conventional  Detail  of 
Joints,  etc.,  of  Post,   Head,  and 
Transom. 


cutting  (not  shoulders)  having  been  done, 
a  pattern  of  the  moulds,  made  of  a  piece  of 
hardwood  or  zinc,  should  be  marked  on 
the  ends  of  the  several  pieces.  If  machinery- 
is  at  hand,  the  mouldings  would  be  stuck 
by  it,  and  would  only  require  finishing  by 
hand.  If  all  the  work  is  to  be  done  by 
hand,  gauge  lines  should  be  run  round,  and 
a  series  of  rebates  and  grooves  made,  and 
the  curved  members  finished  with  hollows 


Fig.  1262.— Enlarged  Section  through  Lower  Panel 
Moulding,  Door  Post,  etc. 


17 


386 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


be  described  in  a  later  section.  Sometimes 
these  circular  heads  are  built  up  of  two  thick- 
nesses, the  joint  taking  place  in  a  line  with 
the  stop  part  of  the  rebate.  One  layer  is 
formed  of  one  more  piece  than  the  other, 
to  "  break  joint,"  and  the  two  layers  are 
glued  and  screwed  together  as  illustrated 
at  Fig.  1263,  the  screws  being  inserted 
outside  the  line  of  the  seen  margin.  This 
method  is  somewhat  more  economical  in 
material  and  labour,  as  rebating  out  of  the 
solid  is  avoided,  and  on  this  account  it  is 
more  frequently  adopted  for  ordinary  work. 
Some  leading  architects,  however,  would 
not  sanction  this  method  of  construc- 
tion. The  mouldings  should  be  mitered, 
and  the  shoulders  between  the  post  and 
transom  prepared  ;  these  should  be 
loosened,  glued,  wedged  and  tightened  up, 
cleaning  off  the  flat  surfaces  and  the 
junction  of  the  mouldings.  This  will  com- 
plete the  frame,  excepting  the  cornice  por- 
tion of  the  outside  part  of  the  transom, 
which  should  be  prepared  and  fitted  in  and, 
if  desired,  fixed  ;  but  sometimes  it  is  more 
convenient  to  fix  this  temporarily  only,  so 
that  it  can  be  more  easily  scribed  to  the 
stonework  after  the  frame  is  in  position. 

Splayed  Linings. — The  head  part  of  these 
may  be  built  up  in  sections  or  veneered 
and  blocked.  The  method  of  preparing 
these  will  be  fully  described  in  the  section 
dealing  with  the  subject. 

Framed  Grounds. — The  architraves  being 
wide,  the  grounds  are  framed  of  strips  of 
stuff  2  in.  or  more  wide  for  stiles,  and 
pieces  2  in.  to  4  in.  wide  for  rails.  These 
are  simply  mortised  and  tenoned  together, 
and  glued  and  wedged  in  the  usual  way,  and 
they  would  be  continued  round  the  circular 
head  as  shown  at  Fig.  1264.  A  simple  way 
of  jointing  up  the  parts  round  the  head  is 
to  have  the  rails  about  4  in.  wide,  tenoned 
at  each  end,  and  the  curved  stiles  fitting  on 
to  these  with  open  mortices,  as  will  be 
understood  by  reference  to  Fig.  1264.  These 
would  be  fixed  round  the  opening  flush  with 
the  edge  of  the  splayed  hnings  by  nailing 
to  wood  bricks  or  other  usual  means. 

Architraves. — These  being  wide  and  vary- 
ing much  in  thickness,  the  jamb  portions 
are  prepared  in  two  pieces,  grooved  and 
tongued  together  as  illustrated.    The  archi- 


trave round  the  head  could  be  prepared  to 
fit  together  in  two  pieces,  in  breadth  the 
same  as  those  for  the  jambs,  but  of  course 
each  portion  would  be  formed  of  at  least 
two  or  three  pieces  round  the  semicircle, 
and  breaking  joint  with  the  one  above  it. 
Another  method  would  be  to  build  up  the 
head  moulding  in  four  thicknesses,  making 
each  thickness  break  joint  with  that  below 
it,  as  illustrated  at  Fig.  1265,  gluing  together 
and  screwing  from  the  back.  A  method  of 
connecting  the  circular  head  architrave 
to  the  vertical  parts  is  shown  at  Fig.  1266. 
At  the  back  a  lap  dovetail  is  made  on  the 
end  of  the  member,  fitting  into  a  corre- 
sponding recess  made  in  the  circular  one  ; 
by  gluing,  cramping  and  screwing,  and 
leaving  till  dry,  a  good  sound  joint  can  thus 
be  made. 

Secret  Fixing  of  Architraves. — The  com- 
plete architrave  must  be  offered  up  in  posi- 
tion, the  side  margins  accurately  regulated, 
and,  setting  a  pair  of  compasses  from  the 
arris  of  the  head  lining  to  the  edge  of  the 
architrave  less  the  amount  of  margin  to  be 
shown,  scribe  the  bottom  of  the  archi- 
traves to  the  floor.  The  plinth  at  the 
bottom  of  the  outer  members  of  the  archi- 
trave not  extending  the  whole  breadth, 
the  outer  members  are  cut  away  and  the 
plinth  blocks  fitted  as  shown  at  Fig.  1272, 
the  two  parts  being  firmly  held  together 
by  gluing  and  screwing  from  the  back. 
The  system  of  fixing  here  shown  is  by 
boring  a  series  of  holes  in  the  back  of 
the  architraves,  as  illustrated  at  Figs. 
1267  to  1269.  A  hole  is  bored  a  little 
larger  than  the  head  of  a  screw,  about 
I  in.  or  f  in.  deep ;  then  with  a  bit  the 
size  of  the  shank  of  the  screw  a  second  hole 
is  bored  about  |  in.  above ;  the  wood  be- 
tween the  two  holes  is  mortised  out,  leaving 
a  chase  ;  then,  by  using  a  very  thin  chisel  or 
other  convenient  tool,  a  V-shaped  slot  is 
formed  on  each  side  of  this  chase  as  indi- 
cated at  A  (Fig.  1267) ;  then,  taking  a  screw 
(the  same  size  as  the  one  to  be  used)  turned 
into  a  piece  of  hardwood  and  allowed  to 
project  the  exact  required  distance,  insert 
the  screw  into  the  holes  in  turn,  and, 
striking  the  end  of  the  wood,  drive  the 
screw  head  along  the  V-shaped  chase  made 
in  the  backs  of  the  architraves.  Now, 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


387 


Fig.  1266.— Method  of 
Jointing  Circular  Head  and 
Vertical  Architraves. 


Fig.  1265. — Method  of  Building  Up  for  Circular  Architrave. 


388 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


marking  the  exact  positions  for  the  centre 
of  the  screws  on  to  the  grounds  (these, 
of  course,  exactly  corresponding  to  the 
chases  on  the  back  of  the  architraves), 
turn  screws  into  these  so  that  the  heads 
project  exactly  the  same  distance  as  that 
in  the  hardwood  block  mentioned.  When 
the  architraves  are  placed  against  the 
grounds  and  lifted  about  |  in.  from  the 
floor,  the  heads  of  the  screws  should  sink 


Fig.  1267. 

Figs.  1267,  1268,  and  1269>— Preparing  Slots  for 
Screws. 


essentially  two  doors.  After  the  parts  of 
these  have  been  prepared  and  fitted  together, 
and    additional    mortices    made  through 


A 

i  1 

Fig.  1268. 

the  meeting  stiles  as  indicated  at  a  (Fig. 
1270)  to  receive  wedges,  the  two  separate 
leaves  have  the  joints  of  their  meeting 
stiles  and  rails  glued,  cramped  and  wedged 
up  without  any  panels  or  moulding  being 


into  the  holes  made  for  them  in  the  back  ; 
then,  by  forcing  and  jarring  the  architraves 
down,  the  screws  will  firmly  hold  them,  if 
the  work  has  been  carefully  and  accurately 
done.  The  complete  architrave  may  now  be 
raised  and  taken  down,  and  the  edge  against 
the  splayed  linings  rapidly  glued.  It  is 
then  put  back  and  finally  jarred  and 
forced  into  its  permanent  position. 

The  Door. — The  preparing  of  the  framing 
of  this  will,  in  a  general  way,  be  similar 
to   the   cases   previously   treated.    It  is 


Fig.  1269. 

in.  Then  the  two  meeting  stiles  are  shot 
so  as  accurately  to  fit,  and  both  leaves  are 
in  one  plane  ;  then  the  meeting  edges  are 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


389 


i 

H 

1 

L  

1 

l' 

1 

—A 

 ri 

1 

\ 

i 

-A 

Fig.  1270. — Skeleton  Framing  for  Double-margin 
Door. 


Fig.  1272.— Conventional  View  of  Architrave  and 
Base  Block  reversed  at  Fig.  1262. 


moulded,  or  beaded  and  ploughed  for 
tongues  (see  Fig.  1257).  Hardwood  keys  or 
wedges  are  prepared,  and  sometimes  addi- 
tional gib  pieces  a  (Fig.  1270)  are  also 
provided  ;  cross  tongues  are  glued  into  one 
of  the  stiles  ;  then  both  the  meeting  edges 
are  glued  ;  the  wedges  are  also  glued  and 
quickly  inserted,  cramps  put  on,  and  the 


Fig.  1271.— Conventional  Sectional  View  of  Rail, 
Panels,  etc.,  at  A  (Fig.  1259). 


wedges  connecting  the  stiles  finally  driven 
tight.  After  the  glue  is  dry,  the  ends  of 
these  are  cut  out  level  with  the  bottom  of 
the  plough  grooves.  The  panels  can  then 
be  inserted  and  the  door  wedged  up.  The 
bolection  mouldings  on  the  outside,  as 
also  those  on  the  inside,  are  to  be  held  in 
position  without  visible  fixing.  There- 
fore, these  mouldings  have  been  provided 


390 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  1273.— Outside  Elevation  of  Doors,  Frame, 
Fanlight,  etc. 


Fig.  1274.— Plan  of  Masonry  at  Level  of  Springing, 
Horizontal  Section  of  Doors  taken  through  Upper 
Panels. 


with  small  tongues  which  fit 
into  corresponding  plough 
grooves  made  in  the  stiles  and 
rails  as  illustrated.  This  system 
of  construction  necessitates  the 
preparing  and  cleaning  off  (all 
but  the  final  finish)  of  the 
shoulders  and  framework  gene- 
rally before  wedging  up,  because 
very  little  of  this  can  be  done 
afterwards  owing  to  the  mould- 
ings having  to  be  fitted.  Their 
mitres  are  often  grooved  for 
tongues  or  slip  feathers,  and  thus 
have  to  be  placed  in  their 
positions  before  the  wedging  up 
takes  place.  The  conventional 
detail  at  a  (Fig.  1271)  will  make 
clear  the  construction  at  the 
apron  panel  and  moulding,  and 
also  that  at  the  back.  The  joint 
at  the  end  of  the  architrave  with 
base  blocks  is  shown  at  Fig.  1272. 

Entrance  Doors  and  Frame, 
Circular  on  Plan,  and 
Circular = headed  in  Ele= 
vation. 

Fig.  1273  shows  the  elevation 
of  a  pair  of  doors  at  the  corner 
of  an  important  stone  building. 
The  frame  has  a  circular 
head,  fanlight,  etc.  The  corner 
is  circular,  forming  a  quadrant 
of  6  ft.  radius,  corresponding 
with  the  plan  of  the  building. 
The  doors  and  frame  follow  the 
same  curve,  as  shown  by  the 
plan,  Fig.  1274.  The  masonry 
arch  is  semicircular  in  elevation, 
and  stilted  4  in.  The  outer 
arris  of  the  sofiit  of  the  arch 
is  taken  as  a  semicircle  (see 
AB,  Fig.  1273).  The  reveals 
radiate,  and  therefore  the  soffit 
at  the  springing  on  each  side 
also  radiates,  but  it  finishes 
level  at  the  crown  as  shown  at 
c.  Thus  the  arris  of  the  soffit 
of  the  arch  adjacent  to  the  head 
of  the  door  frame  is  elliptical 
in  elevation,  as  shown  ;   and  it 


Fig.  1275.— Enlarged  Horizontal  Section  through  Door,  taken  through  Centre  of  Lower  Panel. 


392 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY 


is  this  line  which  must  be  used  for  work- 
ing from  when  striking  out  the  door  frame 
head. 


Figs.  1278  and  1279. — Geometrical  Construction 
for  Setting  Out  Face  Moulds. 


Setting  Out  for  Face  Moulds. — Set  out  the 
half  plan  of  the  head  of  the  frame,  as  shown 
by  z  Y  (Fig.  1278) ;  projecting  up  from  z  draw 


the  dotted  arc  a  b,  for  the  outer  arris  of 
the  sofht  ;  project  from  y  and  obtain  the 
dotted  curve  c  b,  which  is  the  inner  arris 
of  the  sofht  ;  projecting  up  frpm  d  obtain 
point  ;  from  B  (Fig.  1279)  measure  down 
the  margin  for  the  head  of  the  frame  ; 
then  the  curve  to  L  is  the  elevation  of 
the  curve  of  the  outer  arris  for  the  head 
of  the  frame.  This  line  from  to  c  is  a 
little  nearer,  and  gradually  widens  from 
the  dotted  line  c  b  until  1'  is  reached.  Take 
any  convenient  points  on  the  curve 
to  L  (Fig.  1279),  project  down  from  these 
points  to  the  curve  in  plan,  and  obtain  a 
number  of  points  in  plan  and  elevation 
as  shown.  From  these  points  in  plan  draw 
converging  lines  to  the  centre  x,  remember- 
ing these  are  horizontal  generators.  Pro- 
jecting out  horizontally  from  d',  e',  f',  g', 
h',  k',  we  obtain  points  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  and 
6,  as  shown  on  the  centre  line  in  elevation. 
Project  from  1  to  V,  from  2  to  2\  and  so 
on  to  point  6  ;  then  projecting  horizontally 
from  e',  f',  g',  h',  K^  points  from  1'  to  6' 
are  obtained,  througu  which  can  be  drawn 
the  curve  1'  to  l,  which  represents  the 
inner  arris  of  the  head.  The  outer  arris  of 
the  head,  as  represented  by  the  curve  7  to 
8,  can  next  be  drawn  in,  as  shown.  In 
the  plan  Fig.  1278  draw  the  line  o  p  through 
v  and  w,  and  parallel  to  this  draw  M  n 
tangent  to  the  curve  u  l  ;  the  distances 
between  these  two  lines  represent  the 
thickness  of  the  plank  required.  Parallel 
to  the  line  M  n  set  up  the  distance  of  the 
springing  (in  this  case  4  in.),  continuing 
the  lines  radiating  from  x  from  each  point 
D  to  L  until  they  meet  m  n  (Fig.  1278). 
A  number  of  points  are  obtained  on  mn, 
from  which  ordinates  are  drawn  at  right 
angles,  as  shown  at  a.  Marking  oH  the 
distances  on  each  ordinate  from  the  spring- 
ing line  Q  R,  equal  to  its  corresponding 
ordinate  shown  in  elevation  (Fig.  1279), 
the  outer  face  mould  can  be  drawn  as 
represented  at  b.  The  method  for  obtaining 
the  face  mould  for  the  inside  is  similar,  as 
shown  at  c  (Fig.  1278). 

Setting  Out  for  Soffit  Mould.— The  half 
plan  is  re-drawn  (for  clearness)  at  Fig.  1280. 
At  right  angles  to  N  x  draw  x  l  ;  on  this 
set  up  distances  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  l  equal  to 
the  corresponding  distances  at  Fig.  1279. 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


393 


Now  with  compasses  set  to  the  distance  with  compass  set  to  e'',  f''  (a,  Fig.  1278), 
d",  e''  (Fig.  1278),  and  using  m  as  centre,     draw  the  arc  8',  and  cut  it  with  the  beam* 


Fig.  12,81. — Plan  and  Elevation  showing  Piece  of 
Plank  with  Face  Moulds  and  Bevels  Applied. 

describe  the  arc  7' ;  next,  with  beam  com- 
passes set  to  X  7,  cut  the  arc  7',  and  then, 

17* 


Fig.  1280.— Setting  Out  to  Obtain  Soffit  Mould. 

compass  set  to  the  distance  x  8.  Proceeding 
in  this  manner,  the  irregular  Hne  N  is 
obtained,  which  is  the  development  of  the 
line  M  N  shown  in  plan  ;  then  setting  oil 
distances  e'  to  l'  corresponding  to  those 
in  plan  from  d  to  L,  points  are  obtained 
through  which  the  curved  lines  for  the 
soffit  mould  can  be  drawn  as  shown. 

Application  of  Moulds  and  Making 
Joints. — The  application  of  the  face  moulds 
to  the  plank  is  shown  at  Fig.  1281,  the  solid 
curve  lines  representing  the  outer  face 
mould  applied  to  the  face  of  plank.  Square 
through  the  plank  to  the  line  a  b,  also  to 
the  line  e  d,  which  is  at  right  angles  to 
D  F  ;  then  setting  a  bevel  to  the  angle 
in  plan  x,  Q,  m,  this  can  be  apphed 
to  the  surface  e  d,  as  shown  in  plan 
at  X.  The  bevel  can  also  be  applied  to 
the  end  a  b,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted 


394 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


lines  at  y.  Then  by  squaring  over,  the 
face  mould  for  the  inside  can  be  applied 
to  the  back  side  of  the  plank,  as  indicated 
by  the  dotted  curves.  The  next  process 
will  be  to  saw  to  these  lines  as  near  as 
possible,  after  which  the  joints  should  be 
made.    In  making  these,  a  horizontal  and 


done,  the  joints  should  next  be  set  out  for 
handrail  screws  and  dowels  ;  the  boring 
and  paring  for  nuts  should  next  be  done, 
the  screws  and  dowels  inserted,  and  the 
joints  drawn  up  tight ;  then  the  work 
should  be  tested,  and  any  necessary  easing 
done. 


Fig.  1283.— Head  with  Curved  Stretcher 
and  Soffit  Set  Out  from  Mould. 


vertical  tangent  line,  which  has  been  drawn 
on  the  face  mould  as  shown,  should  be 
transferred  to  the  face  of  the  plank,  as 
indicated  at  Fig.  1282  ;  these  lines  will  be 
found  very  useful  for  the  appUcation  of 
the  try  square  when  testing  for  the  face 
edges  of  the  joints  as  indicated  at  a.  The 
springing  joint  is  also  square  through  the 
plank,  but  the  crown  joint  must  have  the 
bevel  applied  through  the  thickness,  as 
indicated  at  b.  The  joints  at  the  tops  of 
the  posts  should  now  be  planed  true.  This 


Fig.  1282.— Method  of  Testing  Joints  with 
Try  Square  and  Bevel  Applied  to  Tangent 
Lines. 

Squaring  up  the  Head. — Separate  the 
posts  from  the  head,  then  true  up  the  soffit 
of  the  head,  of  course  working  exactly  to 
the  lines  made  by  the  aid  of  the  face  moulds. 
Prepare  a  piece  of  inch  stuff  the  exact 
curve  of  the  plan,  bore  each  end  to  corre- 
spond with  the  joints  at  the  springing,  and 
fasten  on  as  shown  at  Fig.  1283.  Fasten 
this  piece  of  board  to  the  springing  joints 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


395 


of  the  head  as  shown  at  Fig.  1283,  apply 
the  soffit  mould  to  each  piece,  and  mark  it 
as  shown  in  that  figure.  Then  the  super- 
fluous wood  on  each  side  can  be  worked 
off  to  these  lines,  and  by  testing  with  a 
straightedge  so  that  it  is  at  right  angles 
to  the  curved  stretcher  as  indicated  at 
Fig.  1284,  the  surfaces  may  be  worked  true. 

Moulding. — A  few  leading  points  in  the 
moulding  are  : — The  patterns  for  moulding 
can  be  marked  on  each  end,  as  it  will  be 
noted  that  the  rebate  at  the  springing  does 


transom  is  shown  in  Fig.  1287,  as  is  also 
the  general  construction  of  the  inner  and 
outer  cornices. 

Setting  Out  Fanlight.— The  method  of 
setting  out  for  the  fanlight  would  be  similar 
in  almost  all  respects  to  that  shown  for  the 
setting  out  for  the  head.  There  would  be 
the  additional  advantage  of  being  able 
to  fit  the  pieces  in  the  rebate  of  the  frame. 
It  should  be  noticed  that  the  frame  of  the 
fanlight  is  made  parallel  on  plan  to  allow 
of  the  insertion  of  the  glass.    This  is  held 


Fig.  1285.— One-Half  of  Head  Rebated 
Ready  for  Moulding. 


not  radiate,  being  parallel  to  the  centre  line 
in  plan,  but  finishes  level  at  the  crown  ;  this 
is  to  allow  of  the  fanlight  being  inserted. 
The  usual  way  of  preparing  for  the  moulding 
is  to  make  a  series  of  rebates,  as  shown 
at  Fig.  1285,  and  then  finish  with  small 
hollows  and  rounds,  completing  the  mould- 
ing as  shown  at  Fig.  1286.  The  mouldings 
of  the  posts  are  stopped  near  the  bottom, 
so  that  the  plinth  finishes  against  the  post ; 
a  square  part  of  this  is  shown  in  the  eleva- 
tion (Fig.  1273).  The  construction  of  the 
transom,  with  its  cornices  and  method 
of  finish  to  stonework,  will  be  understood 
by  referring  to  Figs.  1276  and  1287.  The 
transom  head  a  (Figs.  1276  and  1287)  has 
twin  tenons  fitting  into  corresponding 
mortices  in  the  posts.  The  intersection 
between  the  mouldings  of  the  posts  and 


Fig.  1286.— Head  Moulded  and  Completed  Ready 
for  Bolting  to  Posts. 

in  position  by  beads,  which  generally  would 
be  prepared  out  of  the  solid  stuff. 

Doors. — The  curvature  of  the  doors  in 
plan  being  an  arc  of  only  about  2-in.  rise, 
all  the  panels  and  rails  would  be  prepared 
out  of  the  solid.  The  sections  of  these  are 
given  in  Figs.  1274  to  1277.  All  the  hori- 
zontal mouldings  are  curved  and  worked 
out  of  the  soHd  ;  the  fixing  of  all  these  is 
to  be  secret,  and  the  method  here  adopted 
for  this  is  a   good   one.    The  bolection 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINEIIY. 


Fig.  1287. — Conventional  View  showing  the  General  Construction  of  Transom  and  Cornice 
and  the  Intersection  with  Stonework  and  Door  Post. 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


397 


mouldings  on  the  outside  are  se- 
cured by  screwing  from  the  inside 
of  the  panels  as  illustrated  at  a 
(Figs.  1288  and  1289).  To  obviate 
any  chance  of  the  panels  splitting 
should  shrinkage  occur,  the  holes 
in  the  panels  are  made  by  boring 
and  countersinking  two  holes  the, 
size  of  the  shank  of  the  screws,  and 
cutting  out  the  material  between  ; 
thus  slots  are  formed  as  shown  at  a 
(Figs.  1288  and  1289).  These  slots 
are  made  longways  across  the  grain. 
The  inside  mouldings  are  inserted 
afterwards  ;  and  by  preparing  them 
with  a  movable  member  as  shown 
at  c  (Figs.  1288  and  1289),  these 
can  be  secured  by  screws  to  the 
edges  of  the  stiles  and  rail,  as  shown, 
and  then  the  member  c  is  glued  and 
inserted  in  the  grooves  made  to  re- 
ceive it. 

Apron. — The  carved  apron  under 
the  moulding  of  the  top  panel  is 
worked  on  the  solid  of  the  rail  as 
indicated  in  the  section  at  a  (Fig. 
1277) ;  although  a  little  more  trouble, 
this  method  is  superior  to  planting 
on.  The  small  carved  scroll  pedi- 
ments, which  form  a  finish  to  the  top 
panels,  are  drawn  in  section  at  a 
(Fig.  1276),  where  they  are  shown 
tongued  to  the  top  rail ;  being  ellip- 
tical on  the  inside  allows  of  this 
fixing  being  hidden  by  the  mould- 
ing B  (Fig.  1276).  The  inner  reveals 
for  these  frames  are  very  often 
built  parallel,  and  sometimes  a 
toothing  is  left ;  the  space  being  built 
up  close,  or  near  to,  and  after  the 
frame  has  been  placed  in  position ; 
wood  blocks  or  other  means  of  fixing 
being  built  in  the  wall  as  required. 
Although  the  foregoing  description  is 
necessarily  brief,  the  accompanying 
illustrations  are  sufficiently  clear  to 
show  all  details,  the  more  ordinary 
construction  being  similar  to  previous 
examples. 

Circle  =  on  =  Circle  Work. 

Figs.  1290  to  1300  illustrate  an 
example   very  similar  to  the   last  ; 


Fig.  1290. 


Fig.  1291. 


Fig.  1290.— Elevation  of  Circle-on- Circle  Door  and 
Frame. 

Fig.  1291.— Section  of  Circle-on-Circle  Door  Frame. 


^-^-^L_5_6  r  He 

Fig.  1292. — Plan  of  Circle-on-Circle  Door  Frame. 


398 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


as  a  rule,  it  would  be  found  only  in 
buildings  of  rather  ordinary  class.  It 
will  be  seen  by  the  plan  that  the  jambs 
of  the  parts  do  not  radiate ;  the  inner 
arris  of  the  soffit  of  the  arch  is  a  semi- 
circle, and  thus,  on  account  of  the  radius 
of  the  plan  not  being  great  and  the  curva- 
tures being  very  fiat,  the  outer  arris  of 
the  head  of  the  frame  can  also  be  taken 
as  a  semicircle.  A  simple  method  will 
now  be  shown  and  explained  of  setting  out 
and  constructing  the  head  with  one  mould 
only. 

Circle-on-Circle  Door  Frame  constructed 
with  One  Mould— Fig.  1290  shows  the  front 
elevation  of  a  4-in.  by  3-in.  semicircular- 
headed  solid  door  frame,  with  single 
rebated  parallel  jambs,  oak  sill,  double 
rebated  and  weathered  transom,  a  2-in. 
glazed  fixed  fanlight,  and  a  2-in.  four-panel 
door,  moulded  outside,  with  the  bottom 
panels  bead  flush  inside.  Fig.  1291  shows 
a  central  vertical  section,  and  Fig.  1292  the 
plan.  In  beginning  a  job  of  this  description, 
an  elevation  of  the  head  down  to  the  transom 
should  be  set  out  full  size  on  a  rod,  and  im- 
mediately beneath  it,  and  projected  from  it, 
the  plan  should  also  be  set  out.  To  get  the 
thickness  of  the  stuff  required  out  of  which 
to  get  the  head,  assuming  that  the  head  will 
be  made  in  two  pieces  jointed  at  the  centre, 
draw  lines  from  the  centre  to  the  outside 
edges  of  the  jambs,  on  the  inside  of  the  plan 
(see  a'  c  d.  Fig.  1292)  ;  also  draw  two  lines 
parallel  with  these,  touching  the  curve  on 
the  outside,  as  1'  e  g,  which  gives  the 
thickness  of  the  piece  of  stuff  required.  To 
find  its  length,  either  go  through  the  same 
process  in  the  elevation,  drawing  the  ends 
square  with  the  tangent  lines,  or  preferably, 
make  the  mould  f  g,  J  H  squared  out  from 
the  lines  just  drawn,  using  ordinates  to  obtain 
this,  as  in  the  previous  example  ;  or  it 
can  be  struck  out  with  a  trammel,  being  a 
quarter  of  an  elHpse.  Cut  out  two  pieces 
to  this  mould  square  from  the  face,  and  make 
the  joints  at  the  centre  and  springing  the 
same  as  the  end  of  the  mould.  For  the 
horizontal  cut,  set  a  bevel  as  shown  on  the 
plan,  and  apply  it  on  the  edge  of  the  stuff  from 
the  face.  A  handrail  screw  and  a  couple  of 
cross-tongues  may  be  used  for  the  head 
joint,  the  nuts,  of  course,  going  in  from  the 


top.  When  the  joint  is  made,  try  the  head, 
which  will  now  have  the  appearance  of  Fig. 
1293,  without  the  lines,  over  its  plan  ;  its 
back  and  front  faces  should  stand  perpendicu- 
larly over  the  lines  1'  e  g  and  a'  c  d,  and  its 
ends  completely  cover  the  sections  of  the 
jambs  (Fig.  1292).  The  head  has  now  to 
be  worked  to  the  plan  curve. 

Ascertaining  Plan  Curves. — Divide  the 
soffit  of  the  head  of  the  frame  into 
any  number  of  equal  parts  between  the 
springing  lines  (as  in  Fig.  1290),  number- 
ing them  on  each  side,  from  springing  to 
centre  ;  the  greater  the  number  of  parts, 
the  more  accurate  will  be  the  curve.  From 
these  points  drop  perpendiculars  into  the 
plan,  cutting  the  tangents  or  block  lines  of 
the  head  (see  Fig.  1292),  and  numbering  the 
lines  to  correspond  with  the  elevation.  The 
utility  of  projecting  the  plan  from  the  eleva- 
tion will  now  be  apparent.  Next,  place  the 
head  over  its  plan,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1293, 
keeping  its  centre  perpendicularly  over  the 
centre  line  in  the  plan  ;  with  the  aid  of  a  set 
square,  transfer  to  its  face  the  lines  1,  2,  3,  4, 
etc.,  from  the  like  numbered  points  in  the 
plan.  Lines  must  now  be  drawn  on  the 
top  and  bottom  edges  from  these,  parallel 
with  the  joint ;  and  to  do  this,  take  the  joint 
bevel,  and  apply  it  to  each  line  in  succession, 
holding  the  stock  level,  and  the  inside  edge 
of  the  blade  to  the  point  from  which  the 
line  has  to  be  drawn.  The  head  now  having 
the  lines  drawn  as  in  plan  and  elevation 
must  have  the  points  marked  where  the 
curve  intersects  these  lines.  Set  a  pair  of 
compasses  or  spring  dividers  to  the  widths 
1'  A  and  r  a'  (Fig.  1292),  and  transfer  them 
to  the  head  at  the  springing  joint  on  each 
side.  Do  the  same  throughout  the  series  b', 
transferring  each  width  to  its  proper  position 
on  the  top  and  bottom  edges  of  the  head, 
until  all  the  points  have  been  pricked  off, 
as  shown  in  the  enlarged  sketch  of  one  side 
of  the  head  (Fig.  1294).  Now  draw  the  curve 
through  the  points  thus  obtained,  either  by 
freehand  or  by  the  aid  of  a  thin  strip  bent 
round  the  head  and  kept  to  the  points.  The 
two  pieces  can  be  worked  off  to  the  fines, 
keeping  them  straight  across  the  face  in 
the  direction  of  the  ordinates.  They 
should  be  tested  by  moving  a  set  square, 
held  perfectly    upright,    carefully  around 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


399 


the  curve,  and  seeing  whether  the  face  fits 
close  up  to  it. 

Lining  Out  Elevation  Curve. — The  plan 
curves  having  been  worked,  the  next  thing 
is  to  line  out  the  elevation  curve.  This  is 
done  in  the  manner  shown  by  Fig.  1295. 
Cut  in  tightly  between  the  ends  of  the  head 
a  stretcher  as  shown,  and  screwing  it  to  the 
joints.  Lay  the  head  on  the  bench  top, 
packing  it  up  level  ;  then  fix  a  small  block 
in  the  middle  of  the  stretcher,  of  such  a 
height  as  to  bring  its  top  level  with  the 
highest  point  on  the  head..  Draw  a  line  to 
represent  the  springing  line,  and  upon  this 
mark  the  exact  centre  ;  this  will  be  the  point 


groove  made  in  the  end,  thus  drav/ing 
the  curve  as  true  as  if  it  had  been  struck  on 
a  flat  surface  ;  the  operation  should  be  re- 
peated on  the  other  side  of  the  head,  first 
taking  the  stretcher  ofi  and  turning  it  over. 

Moulding  and  Rebating  Frame  Head. — 
The  soffit  having  been  worked  ofi  to  the 
lines,  the  head  is  ready  for  moulding  and 


Fig.  1293.— Sketch  of  Head  of  Circle-on-Circle  Door  Frame 
before  Shaping. 


Fig.  1294.— Back  of  Head 
of  Circle-on-Circle  Door 
Frame,  showing  Method 
of  Obtaining  Points  in 
the  Curve. 


from  which  to  describe  the  semicircles  of 
the  elevation  with  the  falling  compass  now 
to  be  described.  Get  a  piece  of  light  deal 
about  2  ft.  long,  f  in.  thick,  and  2  in.  wide 
at  one  end,  tapering  to  J  in.  at  the  other, 
and  in  it  cut  a  slight  hollow  or  V  as 
a  bed  for  the  pencil.  Mark  on  the  edge 
the  distances  of  the  inside  and  outside  of 
the  jamb,  and  bore  holes  with  a  bradawl 
through  these  points,  square  from  the 
bottom  edge  ;  these  will  give  the  radii 
for  soffit  and  outside  lines  of  the  head. 
Fix  the  compass  as  shown  in  Fig.  1295,  and, 
beginning  at  the  crown,  move  it  steadily 
round,  letting  the  pencil  slip  down  the 


rebating,  as,  unless  the  frame  is  going  into 
a  stone  reveal,  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  do 
anything  to  the  back  of  the  head.  The 
rebate  should  be  worked  first,  a  quirk  router 
being  used  to  sink  a  small  groove,  J  in.  deep, 
and  2  in.  from  the  inside  face  ;  run  a  cut- 
ting gauge,  with  a  rounded  fence,  set  to 
J  in.,  round  the  inside  face,  and  remove 
the  core  with  a  bent  chisel.  Finish  up  the 
rebate  with  a  round-soled  thumb  rebate 
plane,  and  work  a  |-in.  bead  on  the  rebated 
edge  and  a  ^-in.  bead  on  the  outside. 

Circle-on-Circle  Door  Frame  :  Completion. 
— The  head  can  now  be  glued  up  at  the  centre 
joint  and  cleaned  off.  the  stretcher  screwed 


400 


CAKPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


on  and  this  part  set  aside  whilst  the  remain- 
ing portions  of  the  frame  are  being  worked. 
The  transom  and  the  oak  sill  will  be  got  out 
to  the  plan  moulds  and  worked  to  their 
respective  sections  after  having  been  mor- 
tised and  tenoned.    In  setting  out  the  sill 


Fig.  1295. — Sketch  of  Head  of  Circle-on-Circle  Door 
Frame  Shaped  to  Plan  Curve,  with  Falling 
Compass  Describing  Elevation  Curve. 

and  transom  to  width,  work  to  the  sight 
lines  of  the  head,  making  the  shoulders  to 
the  quirks  of  the  beads  on  it.  Get  out  the 
jambs  from  stuff  about  8  in.  longer  than 
the  length  between  the  springing  and  under 
side  of  the  sill,  to  allow  for  the  key  tenon 
at  the  springing,  and  true  up  these  to  the 


Figs.  1296  and  1297.— Enlarged  Details  of  Joint  at 
Springing  of  Circle-on-Circle  Door  Frame. 

section  shown  at  Fig.  1298.  Set  these  out 
from  the  section,  or  height  rod,  for  mor- 
tising, as  shown  at  Figs.  1296  and  1297, 
also  for  shoulders  for  key  tenon  as 
shown.  The  thickness  of  the  stem 
should   be   just   under   one- third   of  the 


width  of  the  jamb,  and  it  will  eventually  be 
cut  J  in.  back  from  the  face  edge  in  order  to 
clear  the  rebate  in  the  head  ;  reference  to 
Fig.  1298  will  make  this  plain.    The  end  of 


Fig.  1298.— Enlarged  Section  of  Jamb  for  Circle- 
on-Circle  Door  Frame. 

the  key  head  should  be  tapered,  to  avoid 
weakening  the  head  more  than  can  be 
avoided,  and  the  sides  of  the  keys  should  be 
cut  to  the  same  bevel  as  the  jambs  are  worked 
to.  The  shoulders  should  also  be  cross- 
tongued  and  stopped  inside,  as  shown.  As 


Fig.  1299.— Enlarged  Section  of  Transom  for 
Circle-on-Circle  Door  Frame. 

mentioned,  double  tenons  are  used  for  the 
transom  ;  this  is  to  avoid  cutting  the  fibres 
at  the  root  of  the  key,  and  the  insides  of  the 
mortices  should  come  in  line  with  the  outside 
Hues  of  the  key,  and  in  thickness  they  should 
be  yV  ill-  under  the  half  of  the  remaining 
wood.  Fig.  1299  is  a  section  of  the  transom  ; 


Fig.  1300.— Enlarged  Section  of  Head  at  Crown  of 
Circle-on-Circle  Door  Frame. 

and  Fig.  1300  a  section  of  head  at  crown. 
Having  set  the  sight  Hues  of  the  jambs  on  the 
face  edge  of  the  transom,  measure  out  and 
pencil  lines  representing  the  thickness  of 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


401 


jamb,  prick  the  mortice  gauge  upon  these  two 
Hnes — namely,  the  inside  and  outside  of  the 
jamb — and  join  the  points  by  a  straight  Une  ; 
this  will  give  the  sides  of  tenons.  Next 
gauge  the  jambs  for  the  rebate  and  beads. 
These  will  be  worked  after  the  mortising 
and  tenoning  are  completed.  In  wedging 
up,  paint  the  tenons  of  the  transom  and 
enter  them  ;  glue  the  keys  on  the  jambs, 
cramp  up,  and  drive  the  sill  on  dry  to  keep 
all  square  ;  wedge  up  the  head,  then  the 
transom,  cramp  the  sill  from  the  projecting 
ends  of  the  keys,  and  wedge  up,  painting 
both  wedges  and  tenons.  If  the  work  is 
true  and  out  of  winding,  a  straightedge 
applied  to  the  sill  and  transom  inside  will 
touch  the  face  of  the  head  all  round,  and  a 
set-square  held  to  it  will  fit  the  sofiit  in 
any  part.  The  fanUght  will  be  managed  in 
the  same  way  as  the  head  of  the  frame,  in 
respect  of  the  plan  curve  ;  finish  the  fitting 
by  scribing  it  into  the  rebate,  one  piece  at 
a  time,  fitting  the  back  edge  in  the  same 
way,  then  fining  round  the  soffit  with  a  sfip 
of  wood  the  width  of  the  margin.  Joint  up 
at  the  centre,  and  work  the  rebates  and 
moulding,  set  the  bottom  rail  out  with 
square  shoulders  in  both  directions,  and, 
when  working  the  head,  make  the  portion 
below  the  springing  square  from  it.  This 
will  be  mortised,  the  tenon  being  on  the 
bottom  rail ;  the  joint  in  the  head  will 
have  to  be  glued  up  at  the  same  time  as 
the  rail  is  wedged. 

Circle  =  on  =  Circle  Swing  Doors  with 
Fanlight. 

Figs.  1301  and  1302  show  a  pair  of  2i-in. 
circle-on-circle  swing  doors  in  a  solid  frame, 
with  fanlight  above,  with  a  chord  rise  of 
15  in.  Details  are  given  in  the  sectional 
views  (Figs.  1303  to  1307).  The  doors  are  half 
glass,  with  diminished  stiles  and  marginal 
bars,  the  upper  part  divided  into  sections 
with  concentric  radiating  and  inverted  bars, 
the  spandril  corners  filled  in  with  sunk  and 
moulded  panels  ;  apron  lining  on  middle 
rail ;  ovolo  moulded  and  hollowed  frame, 
with  moulded  and  denticulated  cornice. 
The  fanUght  is  fi:xed  in  the  centre  of  the 
frame,  with  concentric  and  radiating  bars. 
The  head  of  the  frame,  and  the  fanfight,  must 
be  prepared  on  a  cylinder.    These  could 


Fig.  1301. 


-Elevation  of  Circle-on-Circle  Swing 
Doors  with  Fanlight. 


Fig.  1302  — Sectional  Plan  of  Circle-on-Circle 
Swing  Doors  with  Fanlight. 


402 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Tig.   1303.  Fig.   1304.  Fig.  1305. 


Fig.  1303. — Enlarged  Section  of  Circle-on- Circle  Swing  Doors  through  Transom  and  Fanlight  on 
Line  A  A  (Fig.  1301).        Fig.  1304. — Enlarged  Section  through  Upper  Part  of  Circle-on-Circle 
Swing  Doors  on  Line  B  B  (Fig.  1301).        Fig.  1305. — Enlarged  Section  through  Lower  Part  of 
Circle-on-Circle  Swing  Doors  on  Line  C  C  (Fig.  1301). 


Fig.  1306. — Enlarged  Section  through  Stiles  of  Circle-on-Circle  Swing  Doors  on  Line  D  D 

(Fig.  1301). 


DOORS  AND  DOOR  FRAMES. 


403 


be  got  out  by  the  aid  of  lines,  but  where  a 
definite  curve  is  required  the  former  method 
is  more  accurate  and  rehable.  The  material 
will  be  cut  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines, 
D  E  F  G  (Fig.  1308)  showing  the  thickness, 
and  A  CHI  (Fig.  1309)  the  length.  When 


as  the  upper  part  of  the  door,  should  be 
fitted  on  the  cyHnder.  Joint  screws  should 
be  used  where  practicable. 

The  jambs  of  the  door  frame  are  cut  from 
solid  material,  as  is  also  the  head,  but  the 
transom  is  built  up,  as  seen  in  Fig.  1303, 


Fig.  1307.— Enlarged  Section  through  Bottom  P 

(Fig. 

fitted  |to  the  cylinder,  the  proper  curve  will 
be  obtained  by  using  a  trammel  with  a 
rising  and  falHng  sHde  at  the  striking  point, 


o 


^-^.j      Fig.  1308. 
G 


CYLINDER 
I 


Figs.  1308  and  1309.— Method  of  Setting  Out 
Fanlight  of  Circle-on-Circle  Swing  Doors. 

similar  to  Fig.  1295,  the  head,  etc.,  being 
reversed.     The  bars  in  the  fanhght,  as  well 


inel  of  Circle-on-Circle  Swing  Doors  on  Line  E  E 
1301). 

with  a  deal  core  and  hardwood  facings. 
The  narrow  frieze  being  prepared  from  J-in. 
material,  it  may  be  bent  round  the  sweep. 
The  neck  mouldings  are  prepared  from  the 
solid  cut  to  the  sweep  required.  The  cornices 
may  be  prepared  as  seen  in  section,  or  in 
separate  pieces,  and  built  up  to  the  required 
size.  Veneers  are  not  used  in  this  class  of 
work.  The  door  stiles  are  cut  from  solid, 
straight-grained  material,  and,  needless  to 
mention,  bone  dry.  The  rails  being  rather 
a  quick  sweep,  they  are  framed  to  the  stiles 
with  stub  tenons  and  haunchings,  the  joints 
being  brought  tight  up  by  means  of  J -in. 
billiard  bolts  inserted  from  the  back  edge  of 
the  stiles.  The  nuts  are  let  into  the  rails 
from  each  edge  into  a  square  mortice  to  fit 
the  nut,  and  when  in  exact  position  the 
holes  are  plugged  to  prevent  their  moving. 
By  this  method  the  shoulders  may  be  fitted 
perfectly  with  little  trouble,  and  the  trouble 
caused  by  broken,  short-grained  tenons  is 
avoided.  The  circular  holes  in  the  edge  of 
the  stiles  made  by  the  centre-bit,  and  in 
which  the  heads  of  the  bolts  are  embedded, 
are  filled  up  with  pieces  of  wood  the  same 
grain  and  colour  as  the  stile,  care  being 
taken  that  the  grains  follow. 


WINDOW   SASHES   AND  CASEMENTS. 


Sash  Frame. 

For  the  present  purpose  it  will  be  sup- 
posed that  a  window  frame  and  sashes  are 
to  be  made  entirely  by  hand,  no  machine- 
prepared  material  being  used.  The  sash 
frame  is  shown  by  Figs.  1310  to  1312,  and 
it  will  also  be  assumed  that  a  rod  has 
been  set  out,  as  explained  and  illustrated 
on  p.  294,  containing  the  two  sections 
(Figs.  1310  and  1312).  It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  pulley  stiles  are  drawn  in  line  with 
the  brick  reveal,  and  the  head  in  line  with 
the  head  of  the  brick  opening.  When  thus 
arranged,  the  size  of  the  opening  in  the  brick- 
work afiords  the  necessary  data  for  setting 
out  the  size  of  the  frame. 

Materials. — The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  take 
off  the  quantities  of  the  stuff  required  for 
the  job  :  the  lengths  of  the  upright  pieces 
will  be  taken  from  the  vertical  section,  and 
their  widths  and  thicknesses  from  the 
plan  ;  and  the  lengths  of  the  horizontal 
pieces  will  be  found  on  the  plan,  and  their 
widths  and  thicknesses  on  the  vertical  sec- 
tion. Cut  the  stuff  for  the  inside  and  out- 
side linings  1 J  in.  longer  than  as  shown  on  the 
height  rod,  so  that  when  nailed  on  they  will 
run  over  each  end.  Linings  are  usually  ar- 
ranged so  that  two  of  equal  width  may  be 
cut  out  of  a  9-in.  board  ;  the  head  linings 
should  be  cut  J  in.  longer  than  the  clear 
length  between  the  pulley  stiles  ;  and  the 
head  and  sill  should  be  each  2  in.  or  3  in. 
longer  than  the  width  of  the  frame  over  all. 
When  fitting  up,  the  horns  should  be  left  on, 
as  they  are  sometimes  handy  for  fixing,  and, 
if  not  required,  they  can  always  be  cut  off. 
The  length  of  the  pulley  stiles  should  be  equal 
to  the  distance  from  the  top  of  the  head  to 
the  weathering  of  the  sill ;  and  the  width 
should  be  |  in.  more  than  the  clear  width 
between  the  linings,  which  allows  for  two 


f-in.  tongues  and  J  in.  for  shooting.  The 
length  of  the  back  lining  should  be  taken 
from  the  under  side  of  the  head  to  the  weath- 
ering of  the  sill,  the  width  being  J  in.  more 
than  from  the  inside  of  one  lining  to  the  out- 
side of  the  other.  The  parting  slips  should 
be  of  similar  length,  and  If  in.  by  J  in.  in 
section ;  the  parting  beads,  also  of  the 
same  length,  should  be  prepared  out  of  J-in. 
by  1-in.  stuff  ;  the  two  upright  inside  or 
guard  beads,  of  the  same  length,  should  be 
IJ  in.  wide,  and  prepared  out  of  J-in.  by 
IJ-in.  stuff.  The  head  and  sill  beads  should 
be  a  little  longer  than  the  clear  width 
between  the  pulley  stiles,  the  sill  bead  to 
be  J  in.  wider  to  allow  for  bevelling.  For 
the  sashes,  cut  all  the  stuff  the  exact  width, 
so  that  no  labour  is  lost  in  shooting  off 
superfluous  material.  Sashes  require  at 
least  i^-  play,  and  if  they  are  made  to 
exact  width,  there  will  be  still  sufficient 
material  to  allow  for  fitting.  The  stiles 
should  be  IJ  in.  longer  than  required,  and 
the  rails  J  in.  Cut  the  bottom  rail  |  in. 
wider  than  the  finished  size,  to  allow  for 
the  splay.  A  careful  workman  will  form 
the  splay  to  fit  the  sill  before  gluing  up  the 
sash.  Do  not  overlook  the  brackets  or 
horns  on  the  stiles  of  the  upper  sash. 

Preparing  the  Stuff. — The  side  and  head 
linings  should  be  faced  on  their  best  sides, 
shot  on  their  best  edges,  and  gauged  to 
thickness  for  IJ  in.  from  their  face  edges  ; 
the  remaining  portion  of  the  back  sides, 
being  hidden  in  the  casing,  need  not  be 
planed,  except  when  the  lining  is  consider- 
ably thicker  than  required,  then  it  must  be 
either  thicknessed  the  whole  breadth  or 
rebated  out  to  the  distance  of  the  back  of 
the  pulley  stile,  otherwise  the  shoulder 
formed  on  the  edge  of  the  stile  by  the 
rebate  for  tongue  would  require  to  be 
splayed,  and  much  time  would  be  lost  in 


406 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


fitting.  Put  the  best  stuff  on  the  inside  of 
the  frame,  as  nearly  all  the  outside  lining 
is  hidden  in  the  brickwork.  The  head  and 
the  pulley  stiles  should  be  planed  straight 
and  out  of  winding,  and  be  gauged  to  width, 
including  the  tongues  ;  the  inside  edges 
should  be  gauged  to  thickness,  the  back  sides 
being  left  rough.  The  oak  sill  is  usually 
supplied  of  rough  wedge-shape  section,  as 
shown  at  Fig.  1317,  which  faciHtates  work- 
ing and  economises  material.  Commence 
by  taking  the  bottom  or  the  flat  side  out  of 
winding.  Square  the  widest  edge  from  this, 
and  gauge  it  to  3  in.  thick,  as  indicated  at 


Fig.  1313.— Enlarged  Detail  at  Sill. 

A,  Fig.  1318.  Gauge  the  width  J  in.  more 
than  the  thickness  of  the  frame  over  all,  in 
order  to  allow  for  subsequent  shrinkage. 
Most  shops  keep  standard  patterns  of  sills, 
which  should  be  used  for  marking  the  ends 
indicated  at  Fig.  1317  ;  but  if  one  of  these 
is  not  to  hand,  carefully  mark  the  section 
shown  on  the  rod  upon  each  end,  gauging 
and  ploughing  from  the  inside  to  the  neces- 
sary widths  and  depths.  The  best  method 
will  be  to  first  work  off  the  top  flat  square 
with  the  face  (Fig.  1318),  then  to  set  the 
plough  to  the  inside  of  the  parting  bead 
(see  Fig.  1319),  and  run  a  J-in.  groove  to 
the  depth  of  sinking  ;  gauge  the  outside 
edge  If  in.,  and  work  off  the  weathering 
with  a  badger  plane.  Next  gauge  the  width 
of  the  flat,  set  the  bevel  to  the  sash 
slope,  and  work  off  to  the  bevel  ;  then 
work  the  throating  with  either  a  No.  1 


round  or  a  proper  throating  plane.  Plough 
in  the  two  grooves  for  the  window  nosing 
and  water  bar,  the  former  |  in.  by  |  in., 


Fig.  1314.— Housings  at  Head  and  Sill. 


the  latter  J  in.  by  J  in.,  completing  the 
planing  up  as  shown  at  Fig.  1320.  The 
position  of  the  water  bar  being  taken  from 
the  stone  sill,  it  often  comes  in  line  with 


WINDOW   SASHES   AND  CASEMENTS. 


407 


the  outer  edge  of  the  pulley  stile  (see  Fig. 
1310).  The  back  linings  and  parting  slips 
need  not  be  wrought.  The  parting  beads 
should  be  stuck  on  the  edge  of  a  so-called 


Fig.  1315. — Enlarged  Detail  through  Pulley 
Stile,  etc. 

J-in.  board  with  a  jQ-in.  bead  plane,  gauged 
to  I  in.  wide,  and  mulleted  to  f  in.  tight. 
The  guard  beads  can  be  worked  on  the  face 
of  a  IJ-in.  board  with  a  f-in.  bead  plane  as 
shown  at  Fig.  1321,  then  sawn  just  outside 


Fig.  1316.— Enlarged  Detail  at  Head. 

the  quirk  and  planed  to  it,  or  on  the  edge  of 
a  f-in.  board,  as  indicated  at  Fig.  1322,  and 
then  cut  off  IJin.  wide,  and  planed  to  the 
quirk  for  thickness. 

Setting  Out  the  Frame— Lay  the  sill  on 
the  width  rod  with  the  face  upwards  and 
the  face  edge  inwards.    The  sill  is  shown  pro- 


jected above  the  rod  at  Fig.  1323.  Square 
up  the  inside  lines  or  faces  of  the  pulley 


Fig.  1317.— Rough  Sill  with  Template  Applied. 


Fig.  1318.— Sill  with  Surfaces  ABC 
and  D  Worked. 


Fig.  1319.— Sill  Ploughed  and  Set  Out  for 
Weatherings. 


Fig.  1320. 


-Sill  Worked,  and  Set  Out  for  Housings 
and  Linings. 


Fig.  1321. 


-Preparing  Guard  Bead  on  Flat  of 
Board. 


Fig.  1322. 


-Preparing  Guard  Bead  on  Edge  of 
Board. 


408 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


stiles,  and  square  the  lines  over  the  top  and 
bottom,  indicated  at  a  and  b  in  Fig.  1323. 
To  facilitate  marking  on  the  weathered  side, 
make  a  block  square  or  template  of  a 
piece  of  stuff.    To  do  this,   plane  up  a 


across  the  top  of  sill  by  placing  the  tem- 
plate against  the  shoulder  hues  a  and  e  and 
scribing.  Gauge  up  from  the  bottom  of  the 
sill  for  the  depth  of  the  sinking  so  that  it 
will  come  J  in.  below  the  lowest  point  of  the 


Fig.  1323. — Sill  Set  Out  from  Rod,  and  Application  of  Template  A. 


piece  of  deal  10  in.  long,  5  in.  wide,  and  thick 
enough  to  plane  up,  tapering  from  2  in.  to 
IJ  in.  in  the  breadth  of  the  sill  as  indicated 
at  c  and  d  in  Fig.  1323.  Next  rebate  one 
side  to  fit  the  section  of  the  sill  as  shown  at 
Fig.  1321.  With  this  the  thickness  of  the 
pulley  stiles  plus  the  wedging  can  be  marked 


weathering — see  the  dotted  line  between  e 
and  G  (Fig.  1323).  Gauge  the  sinkings 
for  the  linings  at  each  end,  as  shown  at  h 
and  K  (Fig.  1323),  the  outside  one  being  set 
equal  to  the  width  A  to  B.  In  working, 
chase  the  cross  sinking  first,  then  rip  out 
the  lining  sinkings  as  shown  by  Fig.  1314. 


WINDOW  SASHES  AND  CASEMENTS 


409 


Setting  Out  Sash  Frame  Head.— To  set  out 

the  head,  place  the  sill  on  it  and  mark  the 
face  Hnes  of  the  pulley  stile,  as  a  and  b 
(Fig.  1324)  ;  square  over  the  face,  and  gauge 
for  the  housing  f  in.,  which  may  be  made 


tongues  should  be  cut  off  at  each  end,  as 
shown  at  Figs.  1324  and  1325,  for  the  linings 
to  bed. 

Setting  Out  Pulley   Stiles.— Set  out  the 

pulley  stiles  from  the  height  rod,  and  mark 


Fig.  1327.— First  Stage 
of  Setting  Out  Pulley 
Stiles  from  Rod. 


Fig.  1328.— Second  Stage  of  Setting  Out  Pulley 
Stiles. 


Fig.  1329. —Third  Stage  of  Setting  Out  Pulley 
Stiles. 


to  receive  a  J-in.  tongue  as  shown  at  a,  or 
the  full  thickness  of  the  pulley  stile  as  at  b 
(Fig._  1324).  Mark  off  a  fin.  by  If-in. 
mortice  at  each  end,  J  in.  behind  each  pulley 
stile  in  the  centre  of  the  width  for  the  parting 
shp.  Gauge  a  f -in.  tongue  on  each  edge,  the 
inside  one  on  the  back  and  the  outside  one 
on  the  face,  as  shown  at  Fig.  1324.  These 

18 


Fig.  1330.— Pulley  Stile  Rebated,  Mortised  for 
Pulleys,  and  Tongued. 

off  the  sight  Hnes  of  the  head  and  sill; 
Mark  off  the  lengths  for  the  housings  at  each 
end,  also  for  pockets  and  pulleys,  as  shown, 
run  down  gauge  lines  for  the  tongues,  and 
plough  the  groove  for  the  parting  bead. 
The  bead  is  not  in  the  middle  ;  its  position 
will  be  found  on  the  rod  (see  Fig.  13]  0). 
Next  finish  cutting  out  the  pocket,  which  is 


410 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


usually  about  6  in.  up  from  the  sill  and 
about  12  in.  long  on  the  inside  portion  of 
the  stile  ;  the  length  will  be  determined 
by  the  height  of  the  sashes.    Square  these 


-Back  of  Pulley  Stile  Bored  and  Sawn  for 
Pocket. 


shown  by  Fig.  1311,  5  in.  down  and  f  in.  on, 
but  leave  the  bottom  end  until  fitting  on. 

Working  the  Stuff. — The  method  of  work- 
ing the  sill  has  already  been  explained  ;  it 
should  always  be  prepared  before 
setting  out  the  frame.  In  preparing 
the  head,  the  housing  for  the  stiles 
should  be  worked  first,  then  mortices 
cut  for  the  parting  slips,  and  the 
edges  rebated  for  the  tongues.  In 
preparing  the  pulley  stiles,  square 
the  ends,  mortise  for  the  pulleys  (see 
Fig.  1330),  and  plough  the  parting 


lines  over  from  the  inside  edge  to  the 
ploughed  groove  e  f  (Fig.  1328).  Mark 
two  other  lines  J  in.  within  them  for  the 
rebates,  and  square  these  over  on  the 
back  side.  In  setting  out  the  mortices  for 
the  pulleys,  note  must  be  taken  of  the  par- 
ticular kind  in  use.  The  top  of  the  plate  is 
usually  kept  1 J  in.  down  from  the  head,  and 
the  mortice  is  made  to  fit  the  case  tightly. 
To  ascertain  the  position,  mark  the  thick- 
ness of  the  sash  on  each  side  of  the  parting 
groove,  and  gauge  in  the  centre  ;  pair  the 
pulley  stiles,  and  strike  the  lines  over  and 
gauge  as  indicated  at  Figs.  1328  and  1329. 
The  only  setting  out  needed  for  the  linings 
is  the  gauging  for  the  grooves.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  pulley  stiles,  head,  and  back  lining 
will  be  found  on  the  width  rod  (see  also  Figs. 


EC 


! 


groove  J  in.  by  f  in.  In  cutting  the 


pocket,  if  it  is  desired  to  utihse 
the  removed  material  for  the  pocket 
piece,  make  a  fine  cut  with  a  dovetail  saw 
halfway  through  at  the  lower  end,  and  a 
similar  one  at  the  top  end,  but  undercut  as 
shown  at  a  in  Fig.  1331,  and  in  Fig.  1332. 
Turn  over  the  stile  and  bore  a  f-in.  hole  at 
each  end  exactly  where  the  rebate  lines  cross 
the  parting  groove.  Stop  the  hole  when  it 
reaches  the  groove,  and  run  the  saw  down 
on  the  Hues  halfway  through,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  1331.  With  a  pad-saw  cut  a  fine  line 
halfway  down  the  parting  groove  as  near 
the  outside  as  possible  (see  b.  Fig.  1331), 


Fig.  1332.— Front  and  Edge  Views  of  Pocket      Fig.  1333.— End  of  Pulley  Stile  Wedged  and  Nailed 


Piece. 


in  Sill. 


1315  and  1316).  The  back  lining  is  ploughed 
into  the  inside  lining  and  nailed  on  the  edge 
of  the  outside  lining.  The  top  ends  of  the 
outside  linings  may  be  cut  and  mitered  as 


but  do  not  knock  the  piece  out.  Form 
rebates  as  on  the  head,  and  fit  in  the  pulleys. 
Before  screwing  these  in,  take  a  shaving 
with  a  smoothing  plane  ofi  the  face  of  the 


WINDOW   SASHES  AND  CASEMENTS 


411 


stile.  In  preparing  the  linings,  plough 
the  grooves  f  in.  by  f  in.,  as  shown  by  the 
illustration,  cut  and  mitre  the  outside  linings 


in  its  proper  housing,  and  wedge  up.  See 
that  it  beds  firmly  on  the  bottom  of  the 
housing,  and  drive  a  couple  of  2J-in.  nails 


-Skeleton  Frame  on  Bench 
ready  for  Fixing  Linings. 


on  the  skew,  through  the  wedge  and  the 
stile,  as  illustrated  at  Fig.  1333.  Fix  the 
opposite  stile  in  the  same  way,  making 
sure  that  it  is  out  of  winding  by  sighting 
it  with  the  one  already  fixed.  Stand  the 
frame  on  the  floor,  place  the  head  in  position 
and  nail  it  on  with  three  or  four  2|-in 
nails  at  each  end  ;  the  skeleton  should  then 
be  laid  on  to  pieces  of  quartering  out  of  wind 
ing  and  temporarily  fixed  to  the  bench 


Fig.  1335. — General  View  of  Top  Comer  of  Frame, 
showing  Method  of  Fixing  Head  Linings. 

at  top,  and  smooth  the  bottom  ends  for 
12  in.  up. 

Fitting  Together  Sash  Frame. — Place  the 
sill  on  the  bench  ;  put  one  of  the  pulley  stiles 


Fig.  1336.— Method  of  Mitering  Guard  Beads. 

the  inside  being  uppermost.  Fix  a  piece 
of  quartering  or  arras-rail  on  the  bench  end, 
and  twist  a  couple  of  screws  or  gimlets 
through  a  strip  nailed  to  the  quartering  into 


412 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  1343.— Top  Stile  com- 
pletely Worked  to  Receive 
Rails. 


WINDOW  SASHES 


AND  CASEMENTS. 


413 


the  bottom  of  the  sill  as  illustrated  at  Fig. 
1334.  Test  the  frame  for  squareness  with 
a  rod,  pushing  the  skeleton  in  either  direc- 
tion until  the  lengths  between  the  opposite 
corners   are   equal,   then  lightly  drive  a 


IJ-in.  nails.  Cut  one  end  of  the  head  lining 
square,  put  it  in  place,  mark  the  length, 
and  square  off  slightly  full ;  this  will  make 
a  good  shoulder.  Keep  the  linings  flush  on 
the  back  side,  and  drive  a  nail  through  the 


Fig.  1347.— Top 
Rail  completely 
Set  Out. 


Fig.  1346.— 
Bottom  Rail  com- 
pletely Set  Out. 


Fig.  1344.— Width  Rod  for  Sashes. 


couple  of  nails  through  the  back  of  the  head 
into  the  quartering.  Cut  off  the  projecting 
ends  of  the  wedges,  the  tongues  on  the  head 
beyond  the  stiles,  and  the  tongue  o££  the  side 
of  the  pocket  piece.  Give  the  lower  end  of  the 
pocket  piece  a  smart  blow  with  the  hammer 
from  the  back  ;  this  will  break  it  at  the 
rebate.    Next  nail  on  the  side  Unings  with 


back  edge  as  shown  by  Fig.  1335.  Fit  in  the 
beads  tightly  ;  the  head  and  sill  beads  should 
not  be  mitered  right  through,  but  stopped 
halfway,  and  rebated,  as  shown  by  Fig. 
1336  ;  drive  one  brad  in  each  to  keep 
it  in  place.  Cut  the  linings  off  flush  with 
the  sill,  and  smooth  up.  Turn  the  frame 
over  and   test   whether   it  is   square — if 


414 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  1348. —End  of  Top  Rail,  showing  Moulded 
Edge  and  Scribing. 


rig.  1349. — End  of  Top  Bail,  showing  Haunching. 


Tig.  1350.— End  of  Meeting  Rail  of  Bottom  Sash 
Set  Out. 


Pig.  1352.— End  of  Bottom  Meeting  Rail  com- 
pleted (scribed  at  A)  for  fitting  into  Stile. 


Fig.  1353.— Top  Sash  Meeting  Rail  Set  Out. 


-  ir  t  r 

i 

Fig.  1354.— Tenons  Cut  and  Rebated. 


not,  make  it  so  ;  then  put  in  the  parting 
slips,  keeping  them  1  in.  short  of  the  sill, 
and  drive  a  nail  through  the  top  end,  as 
shown  at  F  (Fig.  1316)  ;  put  on  the  outside 
linings,  trimming  off  the  sill  to  the  level  of 
the  pulley  stiles  if  necessary  ;  fix  the  back 
lining  with  1-in.  nails  ;  nail  the  head  linings 
as  before  ;  cut  off  the  ends  and  smooth  up. 
Only  f  in.  of  the  frame  is  seen  on  this  side, 
so  not  much  trouble  need  be  taken,  except 
with  the  sill.  Stand  the  frame  up  and  glue 
in  the  angle  blocks  on  the  head  about  3  in. 
apart,  care  being  taken  to  have  one  over 
each  shoulder  (see  Fig.  1335).  The  frame 
is  now  finished,  and  may  be  stood  aside 
while  the  sashes  are  being  prepared. 


Fig.  1355. — Portion  of  Rail  completed. 

Setting  Out  Sashes. — Lay  a  stile  on  the  rod 
as  shown  in  Fig.  1337,  in  which  the  frame 
has  been  omitted  for  clearness,  and  square 
up  the  sight  lines,  pair  the  stiles,  and  set  out 
mortices  for  top  and  bottom  rails  half  the 
width  of  the  stuff,  or  a  little  more  (see  a  and 
D,  Figs.  1338  and  1341),  and  the  joints 
for  the  meeting  rails  full  width,  which  will 
be  dovetails  instead  of  mortices  (see  B  and  c, 
Figs.  1338  and  1341).  Square  the  line  of 
the  bracket  over  on  the  top  stiles,  and 
mark  two  lines  on  the  back  edge  of  the 
stiles  10  in.  and  14  in.  respectively  from  the 
top  ends  for  the  line  groove  and  the  knot 
hole.  The  remainder  of  the  setting  out  and 
completion  of  the  stiles  will  be  under- 
stood from  Figs.  1338  and  1343.  Set  out 
the  bars  from  the  stiles,  allowing  extra  at 
each  end  for  the  sticking ;  in  the  case 
of  IJ-in.  sashes  this  would  be  in.  Next 
set  out  the  rails  from  the  width  rod  (Fig. 
1344),  but  do  not  overlook  the  sticking  ; 
place  the  four  together  as  shown  at  Fig. 
1345  ;  square  the  sight  lines,  and  continue 
these  over  the  back  edges  of  the  top  and 
bottom  rails  for  the  haunching,  as  shown  at 
Figs  134G  and  1347.  Set  a  mortice  gauge 
to  the  size  of  the  square  shown,  which, 
together  with  the  sticking,  will  be  f  in. 


WINDOW   SASHES  AND  CASEMENTS. 


415 


Allow  for  the  moulding  J  in.  on,  and  run  the 
gauge  down  all  the  face  edges,  with  the 
exception  of  the  top  meeting  rail  ;  also  set 
a  gauge  to  in.,  and  run  it  on  both  faces  of 
all  the  stuff.  The  entire  operation,  from 
first  marking  off  the  rod  to  the  completion 
of  the  top  and  bottom  rails,  is  shown 
by  Figs.  1345  to  1349.  Mark  a  dovetail 
as  shown  by  Fig.  1340  on  the  upper  ends 
of  the  bottom  stiles,  and  draw  or  trace  the 
profile  of  the  brackets  on  the  top  stiles. 

Working  the  Sashes. — Mortise  the  stiles 
and  tenon  the  rails,  mortising  the  backs  of 
these  for  the  haunching  (see  Figs.  1348  and 
1349)  ;  also  cut  the  dovetails  in  the  meeting 
rails  (Figs.  1351  and  1354)  ;  then  work 
the  rebates  with  a  sash  fillister,  and  stick 
the  moulding  A  (Figs.  1349  and  1352). 
Cut  the  shoulders  of  the  tenons,  and  scribe 
them  to  the  section  of  the  moulding.  Cut 
away  the  moulding  on  the  stiles  at 
the  mortices  to  within  J  in.  of  the  sight 
hne,  but  let  the  "  square  "  remain  on  to 
form  the  haunching,  as  shown  by  Figs.  1340 
and  1343.  When  scribing  the  bars,  remem- 
ber that  the  end  of  the  top  one  which  fits  in 
the  meeting  rail  is  to  be  left  square,  as  there 
is  no  moulding  on  this  rail  as  shown  at  Fig. 
1356.  The  moulded  horns  or  brackets  at 
the  ends  of  the  stiles  should  be  worked, 
cramping  together  one  or  more  pairs  of 
stiles,  with  a  piece  of  waste  wood  against 
the  last  stile  to  prevent  the  edge  from 
breaking  (see  Fig.  1357).  The  meeting  rails 
should  be  gauged  to  in.  wider  than 
the  thickness  of  the  stiles,  and  bevelled  in 
pairs  as  shown  by  Figs.  1351,  1352,  and  1355. 


The  bevelled  sides  are  not  to  be  cut  at  the 
shoulder,  but  must  run  over  the  faces  of  the 
stiles,  and,  for  preference,  are  sunk  in  J-in. 
dovetaiUng  as  indicated  at  Figs.  1340 
and  1343.  Plough  a  J-in.  groove  in 
the  back  of  each  stile,  down  to  the  10-in. 
Hne  for  the  cord.    Bore  a  |-in.  hole  at  the 


Fig.  1356, 


Fig.  1356. — Joints  of  Bar 
with  Top  Rail  and 
Meeting  Rail. 


Fig.  1357 


Fig.  1357. — Method  of 
Moulding  Horns  of  Stiles 
to  Top  Sash. 


416 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


14  in.  line,  J  in.  deep,  and  meet  it  with 
a  |-in.  hole  bored  down  from  the  bottom  of 
the  plough  groove.  Fit  the  rails  into  the 
stiles,  and  the  bars  into  the  rails.  Take  a 
shaving  ofi  all  the  inside  edges  and  the 
meeting  ends  of  the  stiles,  also  the  bottom 
side  of  the  top  meeting  rail,  and  knock  the 
sashes  together  preparatory  to  gluing  them 
up.  Lay  a  pair  of  sash  cramps  on  the  bench 
so  that  they  will  pinch  either  on  or  outside 


sashes,  cut  off  the  horns,  shoot  the  top  rails 
straight,  and  fit  the  sashes  into  the  frame. 
Take  the  side  beads  out,  also  the  parting 
beads,  cut  a  rod  yV  i^i-  shorter  than  the  clear 
length  between  the  pulley  stiles,  and  try 
it  on  the  top  sash  ;  if  it  is  too  wide,  reduce 
the  stiles  equally  to  the  width  of  the  rod. 
Cut  the  overhanging  part  of  the  meeting 
rail  back  for  f  in.  flush  with  the  stile,  try  the 
sash  in  the  frame,  and  put  in  the  parting 


.£4 


Fig.  1359. — Joint  of  Outside 
Lining  with  Sill. 


Fig.  1358.— Joint  between 
Bottom  Rail  and  Stile. 


Fig.  1360.— Joint  of  Top  Meeting 
Rail  and  Stile. 


Fig.  1361. — Dovetail  Joint  of 
Bottom  Meeting  Rail  and 
Stile. 


Fig.  1362.— Enlarged 
Section  through  Meeting 
Rails. 


Fig.  1363.— Face  of  Template. 


the  rails  ;  if  inside  they  will  bend  the  stiles. 
An  alternative  way  is  to  lay  two  pieces  of 
quartering  out  of  winding  on  the  bench,  lay 
the  sashes  on  these,  and  use  cramps  above. 
Knock  the  stiles  off,  glue  the  tenons  of  the 
bars,  knock  the  rails  on,  place  the  ends 
of  the  tenons  into  the  mortices,  glue  both 
mortices  and  tenons,  and  cramp  and  wedge 
up,  a  rod  having  been  previously  used  diagon- 
ally in  order  to  make  sure  that  the  work  is 
quite  square.  Put  a  screw  through  the 
bottom  meeting  rail  from  the  back  side,  and 
wedge  the  bars  straight.  If  they  are  then 
crooked,  drive  the  wedge  most  on  the  hollow 
side.    When  the  glue  is  dry,  clean  up  the 


beads.  The  sash  should  run  freely,  with 
about  in.  clearance  all  round  ;  fix  it  in 
place  with  a  prop.  Shoot  the  bottom  sash 
to  the  width  of  the  rod,  and  try  it  in  the 
frame.  Set  a  pair  of  compasses  to  the  width 
between  the  top  sides  of  the  meeting  rails 
(or  a  shaving  less,  in  order  to  allow  for 
shrinkage  in  the  bottom  rail),  and  scribe 
along  the  outside  of  the  bottom  rail  from 
the  bevel  on  the  sill.  Mark  the  bevel  from 
this  line  on  the  stiles,  and  work  the  sash 
accordingly.  Run  a  weather  groove  along 
the  bottom  edge,  and  bevel  off  the  face  to 
fit  the  bead.  Put  the  sash  in  place,  and 
replace  the  guard  beads.    Figs.  1358  to  1362 


WINDOW  SASHES  AND  CASEMENTS. 


417 


show  details  of  the  joints  in  the  sashes.  The 
letter  references  in  Figs.  1310  to  1335  are  : 
A,  inside  lining  ;  b,  outside  lining  ;  c  and  d, 
head  lining  ;  E,  pulley  stile  ;  f,  frame  head  ; 
o,  guard  bead  ;  h,  head  bead  ;  J,  parting 
slip  ;  K,  back  lining  ;  m,  parting  bead  ;  n, 


Pig.  1364.— Template  applied  to  Stile  of  Bottom 
Sash. 

sash  rail ;  n,  sill ;  s,  sill  bead  ;  t,  throating. 
The  description  of  the  construction  of  the 
sash  frame  and  sashes  is  now  complete,  but 
the  next  four  paragraphs  will  discuss  in 
detail  some  of  the  operations  briefly  de- 
scribed above,  and  will  suggest  alternative 
methods. 

Dovetailing  Meeting  Rails  of  Sashes. 

Several  methods  are  adopted  in  making 
the  joints  between  the  meeting  rails  and 
stiles  of  sashes,  and  perhaps  the  most  com- 
mon form  of  joint  is  that  of  the  mortice 
and  tenon,  the  stiles  being  allowed  to 
extend  about  3  in.  beyond  the  meeting  rails, 
and  the  projecting  horns  being  worked  and 
moulded  as  brackets.  This  method,  how- 
ever, is  seldom  resorted  to  in  first-class  work, 
the  joint  being  either  mortised  and  tenoned 
in  the  ordinary  way,  or  else  dovetailed. 
In  the  former  case — no  matter  how  good 
the  joint  may  be — as  the  mortice  is  cut  with 
a  saw  in  the  same  way  as  the  tenon,  there 
is  always  a  risk  of  the  joint  becoming 
loosened  by  the  frequent  use  of  the  sash  ; 
this  trouble  may  be  entirely  obviated  by 
the  adoption  of  the  dovetail  joint  already 
illustrated  and  described.  Assuming 
that  the  stuff  for  the  sashes  is  planed 
up  and  set  out,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  prepare  a  template  as  shown  in 
Fig.  1363  ;  this  should  be  made  out  of  a 
18* 


piece  of  hardwood,  about  6  in.  long,  of  the 
same  width  as  the  sash  stuff — which  may 
be  taken  at  1|  in.,  and  in.  thick.  Square 
each  end,  and,  distant  therefrom  the  thick- 
ness of  the  meeting  rail,  each  end  should 
be  squared  round  and  sunk  as  shown  in  the 
side  view  given  in  Fig.  1365.  The  mortice 
gauge,  having  been  set  to  the  work,  should 
now  be  run  along  each  face  from  its  tried- 
up  edge,  and  the  dovetails  marked  and 
cut,  giving  them  about  J-in.  bevel.  One  end 
should  be  legibly  marked  "  top  "  and  the 
other  "  bottom,"  and  the  tried-up  mark 
should  be  placed  on  both  faces  and  to  one 
edge.  To  use  the  template,  proceed  as 
follows  :  Take  the  bottom  pair  of  stiles 
— which  should  be  about  ~^  in.  too  long  at 
the  top  end — lay  them  together  on  the  bench 
with  the  tried-up  edges  outwards  in  each 
case,  set  to  one  of  them,  on  the  setting-out 
line  of  the  under  side  of  meeting  rail,  that 
portion  of  the  template  squared  across  and 
marked  "  bottom,"  so  that  its  tried-up  edge 
corresponds  with  the  tried-up  edge  of  the 
pulley  stile,  and  then  mark  the  dovetails 
with  the  setting-out  knife  as  indi- 
cated at  Fig.  1364.  Serve  the  other  stile 
the  same  by  turning  the  template  over 
on  to  it,  then  take  the  meeting  rail  of  the 
bottom  sash,  fix  it  in  the  bench  screw  with 
its  face-mark  away  from  the  bench,  and  set 


Fig.  1365. — Template  applied  to  End  of  Meeting 
Rail  of  Bottom  Sash. 

the  end  of  the  template  marked  "  bottom  " 
on  the  end  of  the  rail ;  make  their  tried-up 
edges  agree,  and  then  mark  the  end 
of  the  rail  as  shown  at  Fig.  1365. 
If  these  ends  are  previously  rubbed 
with  chalk  it  will  be  found  an  advantage. 


418 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


The  opposite  end  of  the  same  rail  is  marked 
in  a  similar  way  by  turning  the  template  over. 
The  top  stiles  and  meeting  rails  are  marked 
in  a  similar  manner,  using  the  end  of  the 
template  marked  "  top  "  ;  but  the  tried- 
up  side  of  the  template  is  used  from  the 
rebated  side  of  the  rail  and  stile  instead 
of  from  the  face  or  tried-up  side.  A  mortice 
gauge  set  to  the  tops  of  the  dovetails  should 
now  be  run  across  the  ends  of  the  stiles, 
and  should  also  be  set  for  and  run  along  the 
tops  and  under  sides  of  the  rails  ;  these  Hues 
are  required  to  cut  to,  and  the  cutting  should 
be  done  in  the  same  manner  as  for  ordinary 


meeting  rail  running  through  for  the  purpose 
of  bevelling;  while  b  shows  a  projection 
of  the  stile  and  meeting  rail  of  the  top  sash, 
with  the  moulding  cut  away  on  the  stile 
and  the  meeting  rail  running  through  on  the 
inside  for  bevelling  purposes.  In  putting 
the  sashes  together,  these  joints  should  be 
pinned  ;  and  if  these  instructions  are  fol- 
lowed, the  difficulties  experienced  will  be 
few  and  slight. 

Cutting-  Pockets  in  Sash  Frames. 

There  are  several  methods  of  cutting 
pockets  in  sash  frames,  and  one  has  been 


Fig.  1366. 


A,  Dovetailed  Joint  between  Meeting  Rail  and  Stile  of  Bottom  Sash  ;  B,  Dovetailed 
Joint  between  Meeting  Rail  and  Stile  of  Top  Sash. 


mortising  and  tenoning — namely,  outside 
the  line  for  the  tenon  or  dovetail,  and  in- 
side for  the  mortice.  The  mortised  portions 
on  the  stiles  and  rails  should  be  cut  out, 
and  the  shoulders  should  be  partly  cut  in 
previous  to  rebating  and  moulding.  This 
completed,  it  will  be  found  that  at  the  tops 
of  the  bottom  stiles  a  small  portion  of 
the  square  will  be  left  which  will  require 
chiselling  off  ;  but  on  the  bottom  of  the 
top  stiles  the  whole  of  the  mould  will 
require  removing  up  to  the  setting-out  hne, 
as  well  as  a  small  portion  of  the  square  left 
on  the  rebate  side.  Of  course,  it  will  be 
noted  that  the  shoulders  on  the  rails  re- 
quire to  be  longer  by  the  distance  of  the 
rebate  and  of  the  moulding.  A  reference  to 
the  isometrical  views  (a  and  b,  Fig.  1366)  will 
explain  the  processes  :  a  showing  a  projection 
of  the  bottom  stile  and  meeting  rail,  with 
the  moulding  left  on  the  stile,  the  meeting 
rail  scribed  round  it,  and  the  back  of  the 


described  on  pp.  409  and  410,  and  another 
on  p.  436.  A  method  is  shown  by  Figs.  1367 
to  1369,  which  represent  the  pocket  as  being 
cut  in  the  centre  of  the  pulley  stile.  This  was 
at  one  time  the  general  method,  but  it  is 
seldom  resorted  to  now,  for  the  following 
reasons  : — The  hole,  when  cut  in  the  centre 
of  the  stile,  necessitated  the  use  of  a  new 
piece  of  stuff  to  form  the  pocket  piece,  and, 
in  varnished  work,  the  new  piece  had  to 
match  in  grain  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the 
pulley  stile.  This  involved  loss  of  time,  first 
in  selecting  the  piece,  and  afterwards  in 
fitting  it.  When  cords  were  renewed,  the 
removal  of  the  pocket  piece  broke  the  surface 
of  the  paint,  and  its  outline  looked  ragged 
and  unsightly  when  replaced,  a  portion  of  it 
being  always  exposed  to  view.  Figs.  1370  to 
1372  represent  a  method  now  generally 
adopted.  It  is  superior  to  the  old,  because 
it  takes  less  time,  and  is  easier  of  construction. 
The  original  piece  cut  out  is  re-used  to  close 


WINDOW   SASHES  AND  CASEMENTS. 


419 


the  pocket ;  and,  when  the  lines  are  re- 
newed, any  unsightliness  occasioned  by 
the  removal  of  the  pocket  piece  is  concealed 
by  the  bottom  sash.  Let  it  be  assumed  that 
the  frame  in  hand  is  of  ordinary  construc- 
tion, and  that,  with  the  rest  of  the  stuff. 


Fig.  1368. 


frig. 


1369. 


Figs.  1367  to  1369. — Part  Plan,  Elevation,  and 
Section  of  Pulley  Stile,  showing  Sash  Frame  Pocket 
in  Centre. 

the  pulley  stiles  are  ready  tongued,  grooved, 
etc.  Lay  a  couple  on  the  bench  with  the 
tried-up  marks  face  to  face  (so  as  to  get  them 
in  pairs)  and  level  at  both  ends  ;  measure 
and  mark  across  the  tried-up  edges,  with 
the  setting-out  knife  and  square,  a  line 
IJ  in.  from  the  bottom  end.  This  is  the 
depth  that  the  stiles  are  sunk  into  the  sill 
(see  A,  Fig.  1371)  ;  6  in.  above  this,  mark 
line  B  ;  18  in.  above  it  mark  line  c  (Fig.  1370). 
This  gives  a  total  of  2  ft.  from  the  top  of 
sill  to  the  top  of  pocket,  and,  as  the  weights 
for  this  class  of  Sash  seldom  exceed  19  in.  in 
length,  ample  depth  is  thus  allowed  for 
getting  them  in  or  out.  Assuming  that  the 
size  of  the  sash  frame  is  5  ft.  6  in.  by  3  ft. 
6  in.,  and  that  the  sashes  have  a  marginal 
bar  and  are  glazed  with  21-oz.  sheet  glass, 
the  weights  for  the  bottom  sash  should  be 


about  9  lb.  each,  and  those  for  the  top 
sash  9J  lb.  each.  The  weights  in  the  first 
case  would  be  about  18  in.  long,  and  in  the 
latter,  19  in.  ;  the  thickness  of  each  would 
be  If  in.  Set  the  bevel  to  the  angle  shown 
at  D  D  in  Fig.  1371  (which,  measured  verti- 
cally, will  rise  about  IJ  in.),  and  mark  the 
stiles.  Square  these  lines  across  both  back 
and  front  (shown  in  dotted  and  full  lines 
at  E  on  elevation.  Fig.  1370)  as  far  as  the 
outside  of  the  groove  of  the  parting  bead  ; 
set  a  cutting  gauge  to  this  distance,  and 
gauge  the  backs  as  deep  as  the  cutter  will 
allow.  Fix  the  stiles  one  at  a  time  in  the 
bench-screw,  and,  with  a  fine  tenon  or 
carcase-saw,  accurately  saw  down  the 
bevelled  cuts  shown  at  d  d  in  section,  taking 
care  not  to  go  deeper  than  the  width  of  the 
plough-groove.  Lay  them  on  the  bench,  and, 
with  a  mallet,  pass  a  pocket  chisel  (resembling 


i 


Fig.  IS 70. 


D 

'if- 


1 
i 


r 


Fig.  1371. 


^Fig.  1372. 


Figs.  1370  to  1372.— Part  Plan,   Elevation,  and 
Section  of  Pulley  Stile,  showing  Sash  Frame  Pocket 
at  Side. 

an  ordinary  1  J-in.  firmer  chisel,  but  having  a 
thin,  well-tempered  blade)  a  few  times  up  the 
length  of  the  pocket,  the  outside  edge  of 
the  parting-bead  groove  forming  the  gauge. 
Do  not  strike  the  chisel  too  deeply,  as  it  is 
not  the  intention  to  go  through.    This  done 


420 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


give^the^pocket  piece  a  tap  or  two  with  a 
mallet,  and  it  will  break  off.  The  ragged 
strip  of  timber  that  formed  the  junction  can 
be  pared  off  with  the  chisel  on  the  stile  and 
planed  off  on  the  pocket  piece.  With  the 
bevel  at  the  same  angle  as  before,  but  re- 
versed, mark  and  cut  off  from  the  top  or 
apex  of  the  pocket  piece  the  cleat  f  (Fig. 
1371).  Fix  the  pocket  piece  in  its  place 
with  a  fine  screw  at  the  bottom  (as  shown), 
say  a  No.  6,  but  do  not  countersink  the 
head,  because,  if  the  frame  is  painted,  this 
would  be  puttied  up  and  would  be  difficult  to 
find  when  wanted.  Reverse  the  stile,  and 
fix  the  cleat  which  has  been  cut  off  the 
top  of  the  pocket  piece  by  forcing  it  down 
into  its  position  a  trifle  inside  the  throat  of 
the  pocket  at  the  top,  as  shown.  Glue  and 
securely  sprig  it,  then  put  it  on  one  side  to 
dry.  The  pocket  piece  will  be  found  to 
stand  well  flush  with  the  face  of  the  stile,  as 
shown  in  dotted  lines.  Clean  it  off  (tem- 
porarily removing  screw),  and  run  the  plough 
up  the  groove  to  sink  it  to  the  same  depth 
as  that  on  the  pulley  stile.  If  this  is  not 
done,  the  parting  bead  cannot  be  driven 
home  level  its  entire  length,  as  it  should  be. 

More  Elaborate  Method.— Figs.  1373  to 
1375  represent  a  somewhat  similar,  but  more 
elaborate,  method  of  constructing  pockets 
— suitable  for  better  class  work.    The  piece 


is  cut  out  and  re-used  in  the  same  manner 
as  in  the  ordinary  method,  but  the  top  and 


Fig.  1374. 


Figs.  1373  to  1375. — Part  Plan,   Elevation,  and 
Section  of  Pulley  Stile,  showing  Improved  Method 
of  Cutting  Pocket  in  Sash  Frame. 

bottom  of  the  opening,  etc.,  are  dealt  with 
differently.    The  top  cut  is  the  same,  but 


I 


Fig.  1376. — General  View  of 
Cramps  and  Sash  Cramped 
Up. 


WINDOW  SASHES  AND  CASEMENTS. 


421 


less  acute,  and,  instead  of  a  bevelled  saw 
cut  at  the  bottom,  two  transverse  cuts  a  a 
(Figs.  1373  and  1374)  are  made,  one  at  the 
back  and  one  at  the  front,  J  in.  apart.  When 
the  piece  is  knocked  out,  this  splits  verti- 
cally down  the  centre  between  the  two  cuts, 
and  must  be  left  so.  At  the  top  of  the 
opening  at  back,  and  in  the  centre,  let  in  a 
piece  of  oak  b  2  in.  long,  1  in.  wide,  and  J  in. 
thick,  glued  and  screwed  in  as  shown.  This 
forms  a  cleat  against  which  the  pocket 
piece  is  checked  ;  in  the  latter  a  chase  is  cut 


fitting  and  fixing  the 
shown  in  Fig.  1374. 


hardwood  stop  b 


Wedging  Up  Sashes. 

A  method  of  wedging  up  sashes  is  de- 
scribed on  p.  416.    A  simple  improvised 


Fig.  1377. — Enlarged  Detail  of  Cramp  and  Wedge  for  Wedging  Window  Sashes. 


to  correspond.  It  is  important  that  no 
more  should  be  cut  out  to  form  this  chase 
than  is  absolutely  necessary,  so  as  to  ensure 
good  joints  at  c  and  d.  Let  the  saw  cuts 
A  A  be  slightly  pitched  towards  the  front, 
as  this  will  facilitate  fitting  in  the  pocket 
piece.  Screw  in  when  finished.  In  common 
work  a  pad-saw  is  used  in  place  of  the 
pocket  chisel,  the  saw  being  started  from 
a  centre-bit  hole  in  the  corner.  This  method 
requires  more  care  in  fixing,  and  is  less 
satisfactory  than  the  use  of  the  pocket 
chisel.  Another  method,  and  one  that  is 
frequently  used,  is  to  cut  the  top  end  on  both 
sides  with  a  pocket  chisel  or  dovetail  saw 


cramp  used  for  this  purpose  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  1376.  It  can  be  made  out  of  quarter- 
ing about  3  in.  by  3  in.  Of  course,  smaller 
or  larger  sizes  can  be  used,  according  to  the 
sizes  of  the  sashes  to  be  wedged  up.  At 
one  end  a  1-in.  or  l|-in.  mortice  must  be 
made  right  through  as  shown  at  Fig.  1377, 
where  it  will  be  seen  that  the  back  of  the 
mortice  is  vertical,  and  the  front  part 
splayed  so  as  to  fit  the  wedge.  Then  a  cleat 
should  be  nailed  or  screwed  on,  and  the  end 
of  it  that  comes  in  contact  with  the  wedge 
should  be  splayed  at  the  same  angle  as  the 


Fig.  1378. — Rod  for  Testing  Diagonals, 

as  shown  at  Fig.  1331.  The  joint  a,  formed 
by  breaking  away  the  pocket  piece  from  the 
stile,  acts  as  a  stop,  and  so  obviates  the 
additional  cost  which  would  result  from 


Fig.  1379.— Application  of  Rod  for  Testing 
Diagonals. 

mortice.  An  important  point  to  keep  in 
view  is  that  the  back  of  the  wedge  which 
fits  against  the  piece  that  goes  against  the 
stile  should  all  ^he  while  keep  vertical  while 


422 


CAKPENTHY  AND  JOINERY. 


being  driven  down.  At  the  other  end  of  the 
piece  of  quartering  a  cleat  should  be  nailed 
on.  It  will  be  found  best  to  make  the 
wedges  of  hardwood.  The  distance  between 
the  back  of  the  cleat  and  the  back  of  the 
wedge  should  be  sufficient  to  allow  of  the 
insertion  of  a  piece  of  stuff  at  each  end, 
to  fit  up  against  each  stile  as  shown  at  a 
and  B  (Fig.  1376).  These  pieces  should  be 
about  1  in.  off  at  each  end  from  the  tenons 
and  mortices.  The  object  of  these  pieces 
is  to  prevent  the  cramps  bending  in  the 
stiles.  If  it  is  desired  to  glue  up  only  two 
or  three  sashes,  one  cramp  will  be  sufficient. 
If  there  are  several,  it  would  be  decidedly 
better  to  have  two  cramps,  as  shown  at  Fig. 


1376  ;  because  when  gluing  up,  the  four 
joints  have  to  be  glued  at  one  time,  and  in 
using  one  cramp,  whilst  two  joints  are  being 
wedged  up,  the  glue  is  setting  in  the  other 
two,  whereas  by  using  two  cramps  the  four 
joints  can  be  cramped  up  at  once.  In 
wedging  up,  the  cramps  must  be  fixed  across 
the  bench  the  right  distance  apart,  and  so 
that  they  are  quite  out  of  winding.  The 
sash  should  be  face  side  dcwn  across  the 
cramps,  then  the  stiles  shoi;ld  be  knocked 
down  halfway  off  the  tenons.  Then  the 
tenons  and  shoulders  on  that  side  should  be 
glued.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  get  any 
glue  on  the  ovolo  moulding,  or  to  put  it 
so  near  that  the  glue  squeezes  out  on  to  the 
moulding.  The  sash  should  be  quickly 
turned  over,  so  that  the  face  side  is  up,  and 
the  tenons  and  shoulders  on  that  side  glued. 
Then  the  joints  should  be  driven  home,  and 
the  pieces  placed  against  the  sash  stiles  and 
the  wedges  tightened.  Next  test  the  diagon- 
als with  a  rod.    The  general  form  of  this  rod 


is  shown  at  Fig.  1378,  and  the  method  of 
using  it  is  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  at 
Fig.  1379.  Say  diagonal  a  c  is  longer  than 
that  at  B  D,  then  the  end  of  the  stile  at  c 
or  at  A  must  be  struck  with  the  hammer 
until  the  diagonals  are  found  to  be  equal. 
The  next  thing  will  be  to  glue  the  ends  of  the 
wedges.  This  is  usually  done  by  dipping  the 
ends  in  the  glue-pot.  They  should  then  be 
inserted  in  the  holes  which  have  been  made 
for  them,  then  the  inner  wedges  should  just 
be  driven  in  hand-tight.  Then  the  'four 
outer  wedges  should  be  driven  well  home, 
and  finally  the  inner  wedges  driven  home. 


Fig.  1381.— Attaching  Fig.  1382.— Attaching 
Cord  to  Sash  by  a  Knot.     Cord  to  Sash  by  Nails. 

Replacing-  Broken  Sash  =  line. 

Materials,  etc. — Keplacing  a  broken  sash- 
line,  although  apparently  a  very  easy  job, 
is  not  really  so.  It  is  assumed  that  the 
disabled  sash  is  the  top  one.  First  procure 
a  sufficient  length  of  sash-line  ;  this  is  sold 
in  "  knots  "  of  twelve  yards,  and  the  proper 
kind  is  a  plaited  cord  formed  with  four 
strands  of  hemp  fibre,  and  about  f  in.  in 
diameter.  A  few  town  clout  nails  will  also 
be  wanted,  and  a  hammer,  a  1-in.  or  IJ-in. 
chisel,  pair  of  pincers,  bradawl,  punch,  and 
a  "  mouse."  The  last  is  formed  by  rolHng 
a  small  piece  of  sheet  lead,  about  2J  in.  wide, 
into  a  cyHnder,  in  which  is  embedded  the 
end  of  about  a  yard  of  fine  cord  ;  and  its 
purpose  is  to  pass  over  the  sheave  of  the 
pulley,  taking  first  its  "  tail,"  and  then  the 
sash-line  which  is  attached  to  it,  down  the 
inside  of  the  frame  until  it  reaches  the 


WINDOW  SASHES  AND  CASEMENTS. 


423 


pocket  or  hole  where  it  can  be  fastened  to 
the  weight.  The  "  mouse  "  is  shown  bent 
in  Fig.  1380,  and  attached  to  the  cord, 
ready  for  passing  over  the  pulley  ;  the  tail 
in  the  illustration  is  relatively  short. 

Removing  Beads. — First  carefully  remove 
the  guard  and  parting  beads  which  keep  the 
sashes  in  the  frame,  avoiding  bruising  the 
edges  of  the  frame  with  the  chisel,  which 
should  be  a  wide  one.  If  possible,  avoid 
bending  or  breaking  the  nails  which  hold 
the  bead  in  ;  if  this  operation  is  managed 
properly,  the  nails  may  be  drawn  out  with 
the  beads,  and  may  be  re-inserted  in  the 
original  holes  without  driving  the  heads 
back.  Insert  the  chisel  at  about  the  middle 
of  the  length  of  the  side  bead,  and  gently 
prise  it  off,  working  gradually  towards  each 
end,  until  all  the  nails  have  started,  then 
pull  firmly  with  one  hand  at  the  middle  of 
the  bead,  so  that  it  may  be  bent  out  in  a 
curve  towards  the  opposite  side.  Then  in- 
sert the  chisel  between  the  sash  and  the 
bottom  end  of  the  bead,  and  cause  the  latter 
to  slip  past  the  mitre  of  the  sill  bead,  when 
it  will  spring  out  into  the  hand.  The  end 
nails  will  probably  be  bent  sHghtly  in  this 
operation,  and  should  be  straightened  with 
the  hammer  on  a  spare  piece  of  wood.  If 
the  sashes  fit  well,  the  opposite  bead  must 
also  be  removed  in  a  similar  manner  ;  but 
usually  there  is  sufficient  play  for  the  sash 
to  be  drawn  out  diagonally.  The  broken 
cord  being  in  the  top  sash,  the  bottom  one 
must  be  got  out  of  the  way,  and  with  a 
strong  assistant  and  a  httle  scheming  it  may 
be  possible  to  hold  it  out  of  the  way  without 
removing  the  cords  ;  but  generally  one  at 
least  of  these  must  be  removed,  and  then 
the  sash  can  be  turned  aside  horizontally, 
hanging  by  the  other. 

Removing  and  Attaching  Cords. — One 
method  of  attaching  cords  to  sashes  is  shown 
in  Fig.  1381  ;  here  the  cord  hes  in  a  plough 
groove  in  the  back  of  the  stile,  and  its  end, 
passing  through  a  hole  made  at  the  bottom 
of  the  groove,  comes  out  into  a  larger  hole 
lower  down,  where  it  is  tied  into  a  knot  to 
prevent  it  slipping  back.  To  remove  this 
fastening,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  slacken 
the  hne,  draw  out  the  knotted  end,  and  untie 
it  with  the  pincers,  when  the  end  can  be 
drawn  through.    A  commoner  method  of 


fixing  is  shown  in  Fig.  1382  ;  here  a  plough 
groove  is  made,  extending  halfway  down  the 
stile,  and  the  cord  is  simply  nailed  in  with 
clouts.  To  remove  these,  grasp  the  cord 
with  the  pincers  as  close  as  possible  to 
the  nail,  lever  it  steadily  out,  and  proceed 
with  the  others  in  the  same  way  ;  having 
released  the  cord,  with  an  assistant  holding 
the  sash,  tie  a  shp-knot  in  the  cord  and  let 
it  run  up  to  the  pulley.  The  bottom  sash 
having  been  removed,  take  off  the  parting 
beads.  Begin  at  the  bottom  of  these,  driv- 
ing the  chisel  in  at  the  side  of  the  bead 


Fig.  1383. — Removing  Pocket  Piece  of  Sash. 

gently,  and,  as  it  is  levered  down,  tap  the 
edge  of  the  bead  on  each  side  with  the 
hammer,  when  it  will  spring  out  of  the 
groove ;  then  carefully  ease  it  past  the 
shoulder  on  the  meeting  rail  of  the  top 
sash,  when  it  can  be  drawn  out  entirely  : 
noting  which  side  the  beads  come  from,  so 
as  not  to  transpose  them  when  replacing. 
Draw  down  the  top  sash  and  remove  it  from 
the  frame,  when  the  end  of  the  broken  cord 
can  be  extracted  and  the  sash  left  hanging 
by  the  other  cord  for  the  present.  The 
next  step  is  to  remove  the  pocket  piece — 
a  kind  of  trap-door  in  the  pulley  stile, 
through  which  the  weights  are  inserted  ;  it 
will  be  found  either  in  the  middle  of  the 


424 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


pulley  stile,  just  below  the  position  of  the 
meeting  rails,  or  between  the  inside  edge 
and  the  parting  groove,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
1314.    Insert  a  bradawl  near  the  lower  end 


of  the  pocket  piece,  and,  pulling  it  firmly, 
tap  sharply  at  the  same  time  with  the  ham- 
mer on  the  face  of  the  pulley  stile,  and  the 
piece  will  be  released.    Next  slip  the  hand 


Fig.  1384.— Sash  Weight. 


Fig.  1385. — Elevation  of  Double-Hung  Window. 


Fig.  1386. — Horizontal  Section  of  Eouble-Hung  Window. 


WINDOW  SASHES   AND  CASEMENTS. 


425 


o 

bo 


CO 
CO 
rH 


through  the  opening,  pushing  the  loose  part- 
ing slip  on  one  side,  when  the  disconnected 
weight  will  be  found  and  can  be  drawn  out. 

Replacing  the  Sash-line. — Cut  and  remove 
the  broken  line  from  the  eye,  and  replace 
the  weight  in  the  opening  with  its  head 
sticking  out ;  then  stretch  the  cord  as  much 
as  possible,  cut  off  the  end  square  with  a 
sharp  knife  or  chisel,  and  fasten  the  "  tail  " 
of  the  mouse  to  it,  just  as  a  rope-end  is 
"  whipped "  ;  that  is,  by  a  series  of  half- 
hitches  drawn  tight  and  close  to  the  end  of 
the  cord,  as  in  Fig.  1380.  The  cord  being 
tied  securely,  bend  the  mouse  slightly,  as 
shown,  and  pass  it  over  the  pulley,  and, 
keeping  the  string  in  the  middle  with  the 
fingers,  allow  the  mouse  to  run  down  until 
the  end  of  the  sash-line  can  be  passed 
through  the  face  of  the  pulley,  when  the 
mouse  may  be  reached  with  the  fingers 
through  the  pocket,  and  the  end  of  the  line 
drawn  down  to  the  opening.  It  may  next 
be  fastened  to  the  weight,  passing  the  end 
through  the  hole  in  the  head,  shown  in  Fig. 
1384,  and  pushing  it  out  through  the  eye 
with  a  bradawl,  when  it  can  be  knotted  and 
drawn  back,  the  knot  being  hammered  into 
the  eye  until  it  is  flush  with  the  sides. 
Measure  the  distance  of  the  end  of  the 
original  cord  from  the  top  edge  of  the  sash 
as  shown  by  the  nail-holes,  and  mark  the 
same  distance  on  the  pulley  stile  from  the 
head  of  the  frame.  Pull  up  the  weight 
about  IJ  in.  from  the  bottom,  and  cut  the 
cord  off  to  the  mark  just  made,  or,  in  case  of 
a  knotted  cord,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1381,  suffi- 
cient being  added  to  make  the  knot.  Bring 
the  sash  up  into  position,  and  fix  the  cord 
either  by  knot  or  nails  as  required,  taking 
care  when  replacing  the  weight  that  it 
goes  in  on  the  outside  of  the  parting  slip 
in  the  boxing,  so  that  the  shp  Hes  between 
the  two  weights.  Replace  the  pocket  piece, 
the  upper  end  being  inserted  first  and  then 
the  lower  knocked  home,  and  fix  the  part- 
ing beads  in  place.  To  get  these  in,  bring 
the  top  sash  down  to  the  sill,  and  shp  the 
lower  end  of  the  parting  bead  between  the 
overhanging  end  of  the  meeting  rail  and 
the  groove  ;  then  bend  it  out  shghtly  in  the 
middle  until  the  top  end  will  go  in  its  place, 
when  the  remainder  may  be  sprung  back  and 
knocked  home.    The  bottom  sash  is  next 


426 


CARPENTRY  AiN'D  JOINERY. 


brought  round  into  position,  and  the  re-  procedure  described  above  being  in  obtain- 

leased  cord  pulled  out  straight  from  its  slip-  ing  the  length  of  the  cord  :   in  this  case 

knot  and  re-fastened  in  its  original  place,  measure  the  distance  of  the  end  of  the  cord 

When  re-fixing  the  guard  beads,  enter  the  from  the  bottom  edge  of  the  sash,  and  mark 


Fig.  1388.— Conventional  Section  of  Double-Hung  Window. 


Fig.  1389.— Joint  at  Meeting  Rail  of  Top  Sash. 

top  end  in  the  mitre,  and  bend  out  the 
middle  until  the  lower  end  will  pass  into  its 
place.  Should  the  broken  cord  be  in  the 
bottom  sash,  obviously  only  that  one  need 
be  taken  out,  and  only  the  parting  bead 
covering  the  pocket  on  the  side  of  the  break 
needs  removal,  the  single  variation  in  the 


Fig.  1390. — Joint  at  Meeting  Rail  of  Bottom  Sash. 

it  on  the  pulley  stile  upwards  from  the  sill, 
and  transfer  the  mark  to  the  cord  when  the 
weight  is  drawn  nearly  close  up  to  the  pulley. 
It  sometimes  happens  that  cords  are  put  in 
without  being  stretched,  and,  in  conse- 
quence, the  weights  soon  touch  bottom,  with 
the  result  that  the  top  sash  will  not  keep 


WINDOW   SASHES  AND  CASEMENTS. 


427 


close  up  to  the  top  and  the  bottom  sash  will 
not  run  up  to  its  full  height.  The  easiest 
way  to  remedy  these  faults  is  to  remove  the 
beads,  push  the  sashes  right  up,  take  out 
the  weights,  and  shorten  the  cords  about 
2  in. 


Solid  Window  Frame  with  Movable 
Top  Sash. 

The  form  of  window  shown  by  Fig.  1391 
is  used  for  workshops,  and  in  other  situa- 
tions where  it  is  not  desirable  for  the  lower 


Fig.  1393, — Horizontal  Section 
through  DD  (Fig.  1391). 


Fig.  1394.— Enlarged  Detail 
through  EE  (Fig.  1391). 


Fig.  1391.— Half  Outside  and  Half  Inside 
Elevations  of  Solid  Window  Frame  with 
Movable  Top  Sash. 

Working  Drawings  of  Double=Hung 
Window. 

Fig.  1385  is  the  front  elevation,  Fig.  1386 
the  horizontal  section,  and  Fig.  1387  the 
vertical  section  of  a  double-hung  window  ; 
Figs.  1386  and  1387  represent,  reproduced 
to  a  reduced  scale,  the  ordinary  work- 
ing drawings  that  are  generally  required. 
The  connection  of  the  frame  with  the  sill 
and  other  parts  is  shown.  Fig.  1388  is  a 
conventional  section  showing  the  general 
construction  of  a  lower  corner  of  the  frame 
and  sash.  Fig.  1389  shows  the  joint  between 
the  stile  and  the  meeting  rail  of  the  top 
sash ;  it  also  shows  the  moulded  horn. 
Finally,  Fig.  1390  illustrates  the  joint 
between  the  stile  and  the  meeting  rail  of  the 
lower  sash. 


Fig.  1396.— Detail  of  Por- 
tion indicated  by  F  G 
(Fig.  1391). 


Fig.  1392. — Enlarged 
Detail  of  Vertical 
Section  (Fig.  1391). 


part  of  the  window  to  open.  Details  are 
shown  by  Figs.  1393  and  1391.  The  bars 
are  framed  right  into  the  solid  jambs.  It 
is  necessary,  however,  that  the  upper  part 
of  the  window  should  open  for  ventilation, 
etc.  In  this  instance  this  object  is  secured 
by  having  the  sash  hung  on  centres.  A 
transom  rail  a  (Figs.  1391,  1392,  and  1396) 


428 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


is  tenoned  into  the  jambs,  and  its  lower  sur- 
face is  rebated  and  chamfered  similarly  to 
the  bars.  Its  upper  surface  is  splayed  and 
rebated  to  receive  the  bottom  rail  of  the  sash. 


follows  :  Jambs,  head,  and  sill  of  frame, 
2|  in.  by  3J  in.  ;  bars,  1  in.  by  If  in.  ;  sash, 
stiles,  and  top  rail.  If  in.  by  If  in.  ;  bottom 
rail  of  sash.   If  in.   by   2J  in.   in  its 


Fig.  1395. 


Detail  of  Joints  at  Bottom  of  Framings 
at  Transom  and  Head. 


This  is  shown  at  Figs.  1392  and  1396. 
The  under  surface  of  the  head  of  the  frame, 
it  will  be  noticed,  is  splayed  a  Httle.  This 
is  to  allow  the  bead  marked  b,  which  has 
to  be  nailed  to  the  top  rail  of  the  sash,  to 
clear  the  head  of  the  frame  as  the  sash  is 
opened.    The  leading  finished  sizes  are  as 


Fig.  1399.— Detail  of  Joints  in  Top  Sash. 

01d=style  Casement  Windows. 

Figs.  1400  and  1401  are  respectively  sec 
tions  through  the  jamb,  head,  and  sill  o 
a  solid  casement  frame,  sunk  flush  with  the 
face  of  a  stone  wall,  which  is  duly  checked 


WINDOW  SASHES  AND  CASEMENTS. 


429 


Fig.  1401. — Vertical  Section. 

n 


\ 

Fig.  1406. — Joints  at  Corners  of  Frame 
and  Casements. 


Fig.  1400.  -  Horizontal  Section. 


Fig.   1405. — Isometric  View  showing 
Method  of  Fixing  Frame. 


Fig.  1402.— Horizontal  Section. 


in  order  to  cover  the  joint,  which  mitres 
into  the  lower  member  of  the  cornice,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  1401.    A  lead  flashing  laid 


Fig.  1403. — Section  through  Head. 

i;o  receive  the  frame.  The  sill  is  shown  re- 
bated f  in.  deep,  and  should  be  bedded  in 
cement,  and  its  ends  built  into  the  wall.  If 
the  cornice  is  carried  over  the  face  of  the 
wall  and  returned  upon  it,  then  the  head 
of  the  frame  can  be  likewise  built  in,  which 
is  the  preferable  method  ;  otherwise  the 
frame  may  be  secured  by  wedging  from  the 
lintel,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1401.  A  stout 
moulding  is  planted  on  the  face  of  the  jambs 


Fig.  1404.— Section  through  Sill. 


over  the  cover  board  of  the'^cornice  and  up 
the  face  of  the  wall  will  prevent  the  ingress 
of  the  wet.  The  casements,  of  which  there 
are  three,  open  out,  and  are  hung  to  the 
jambs,  the  centre  leaf  being  fixed.  The 
meeting  stiles  are  rebated  together.  The 
glazing  is  a  leaded  lattice.    The  sections 


430 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


(Figs.  1402  to  1405)  show  a  more  unusual 
case  ;  here  the  frame  projects  beyond  the 
face  of  the  wall.  A  f-in.  check  or  rebate 
is  made  all  round  the  inner  edge  of  the 
frame,  and  the  joint  in  this  case  should  be 
made  with  red-lead  and  oil.  The  frame  is 
secured  by  wrought-iron  forked  angle-ties 
sunk  flush  into  the  back  face  of  the  frame 
and  built  into  the  wall  (see  Fig.  1402)  ;  two 
ties  on  each  jamb  will  be  sufficient.  The 
ties  may  either  be  turned  up  square  at  the 
ends  so  as  to  hook  behind  a  stone,  or  drawn 
out  to  a  pin  end  and  sunk  into  a  hole  cut  in 


should  be  used  in  putting  these  frames  to- 
gether, but  the  joints  should  be  well  painted 
with  a  thick  or  "round"  oil  paint.  The 
wall  ties  should  either  be  galvanised  or 
painted  before  fixing. 


Fig.  1407. 


Fig.  1408. 


Fig.  1407. — Outside  Elevation  of  Small  Casement 
Window. 

Fig.  1408.— Vertical  Section  of  Small  Casement 
Window. 


Fig.  1409.— Horizontal  Section  of  Small  Casement 
Window. 


the  stone.  The  bracketing  for  the  cornice 
may  either  be  built  into  the  wall,  which  is 
advisable  if  hardwood  is  employed  for  the 
cornice,  or  the  stools  may  be  secured  to  the 
wall  with  joint  hooks.  Fig.  1406  indicates 
the  method  of  joining  the  angles  of  the 
frame  and  casements.  The  head  of  the 
frame  runs  over  the  jamb,  and  is  cut  off 
flush  with  the  outside.  The  joint  is  secured 
with  wedged  tenons,  which  may  also  be 
pinned;  In  the  casement,  however,  the 
stile  runs  through  in  the  usual  way,  the 
rails  being  tenoned  into  the  stile.    No  glue 


Fig.  1410.— Joints  of  Jamb  and  Head,  and  Jaml 
and  Sill. 

Small  Casement  Window. 

The  construction  of  a  solid  frame  and  case 
ment  is  shown  by  Figs.  1407  to  1409.  Th' 
frame  is  made  of  4-in.  by  3-in.  stuff,  mor 
tised  and  tenoned  together  at  the  joints  a 


WINDOW   SASHES  AND  CASEMENTS. 


431 


shown  at  Fig.  1410.  The  frame  is  also 
rebated  ;  the  rebate  on  the  sill  being  splayed 
for  weathering.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
shoulder  to  the  tenon  on  the  stiles  will  have 
to  be  cut  on  the  splay  so  as  to  fit  the  sill  as 
shown  at  Fig.  1410.  The  ordinary  method  is 
to  paint  the  joints  and  wedges  when  wedg- 
ing up,  but  additional  security  is  obtained 
by  pinning.  The  stiles  and  head  are  beaded 
inside  and  out  as  shown.  The  sides  and  top 
rails  of  the  casements  are  of  l|-in.  by  l|-in. 
stuff  (finished  sizes),  and  are  rebated  for  the 


Fig.  1413,— Joint  of  Bottom  Rail  and  Stile. 


glass  and  chamfered   and   mortised  and 
tenoned   together.    In    the    joint  shown 
at   Fig.     1411,    it    will    be    seen  that 
the  shoulder  on  the  head  is  scribed  to  fit 
the  chamfer  on  the  stiles.    The  bottom 
j  rail.  If  in.  by       in.,  is  also  rebated  and 
j  chamfered,  and  is  mortised  and  tenoned  to 
[  the  stile  as  shown  in  Fig.  1413.    The  joints 
I  of  these  casements  are  glued  and  wedged 
together   in   the   ordinary   manner.  The 
I  bottom  rail  is  splayed  on  its  under  edge, 
and  grooved  to  prevent  moisture  rising  by 
capillary  action.    The  meeting  stiles  are 


rebated  and  beaded,  the  rebates  being 
splayed  as  shown  at  Fig.  1412,  so  that  they 
will  open  more  easily. 

Venetian  Sash  Frames. 

Wide  sash  frames,  divided  into  three  or 
more  lights  all  in  the  same  plane,  are  called 
Venetian  frames  ;  but  if  two  of  the  lights  are 
at  an  inclination  to  the  other,  the  frame 
becomes  a  bay.  If  a  frame  contains  two 
pairs  of  sashes  in  the  same  plane,  that  is, 
side  by  side,  it  is  called  a  double  window,  or 
a  two-Hght  frame  ;  but  if  the  frame  contains 
two  sets  of  sashes,  not  in  the  same  plane,  but 
behmd  each  other,  it  is  a  double-sash  frame. 

Solid  Mullion  Venetian  Sash  Frame. 

Venetian  frames  are  of  three  varieties, 
each  of  which  requires  different  treatment 
both  in  planning  and  making.    The  first  is 
the  sohd  mullion  frame  shown  in  Figs.  1414  to 
1420,  Fig.  1414  showing  half  outside  eleva- 
tion, and  Fig.  141G  half  inside  elevation. 
This  IS  the  commonest  kind,  and  is  intended 
for  narrow  openings,  where  the   span  is 
not  too  great  to  be  supported  by  a  lintel 
and  the  frame.    In  this  class  it  is  usual  to 
make  the  central  sashes  much  wider  than 
the  side  ones,  and  to  fix  these  latter.  Much 
of  the  information  given  at  the  opening  of 
this  chapter  on  the  construction  of  a  sash 
frame  is  apphcable  to  the  present  case.  In 
making  a  frame  similar  to  the  one  shown, 
proceed  to  make  a  plan  and  vertical  section' 
full  size,  on  a  board  or  rod.    Beginning  with 
the  size  of  the  opening,  draw,  for  the  width, 
the  faces  of  the  pulley  stiles  in  a  hne  with 
the  reveals  of  the  brickwork,  or  according 
to  the  architect's  plans,  and  with  these 
as  starting  points  proceed  to  space  out  the 
muUions,  linings,  sashes,  beads,  etc.,  work- 
ing from  the  specification  or  whatever  data 
may  ^  be   available.     In  setting   out  the 
rod,  it  is  advisable  to  consider  the  practice 
of  the  shop  for  which  the  work  has  to 
be  done,  whether  it  is  the  custom  to  work 
to    drawing,    or    to    reputed   sizes,  the 
former  being  the  practice  in  most  machine 
shops,  the  latter  the  one  in  favour  with  hand 
shops  ;  for  instance,  in  a  machine  shop  the 
stiles  for  IJ-in.  sashes  would  leave  the  planing 
machine  IJ  in.  thick  exactly  ;  the  path  for 
them  would  be  set  out  1|  in.  wide,  and  the 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


10  DESIGN  FOR  A  SHOP  FRONT 


434 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


subsequent  cleaning  ofi  would  afiord  the 
necessary  clearance  ;  but  in  a  hand  shop 
IJ-in.  sashes  would  be  made  from  reputed 
IJ-in.  or  one-cut  stuff,  which,  by  the  time 


in  arched  openings  ;  in  this  case  allowance 
must  be  made  for  the  rise,  as  the  section 
shown  on  the  rod  should  be  a  central  one  ; 
draw  in  the  head  of  the  frame  in  line  with 


Fig.  1418.— Conventional  View  of  Solid  Mullion  Frame. 


it  was  cleaned  off,  would  only  hold  If  in. 
bare,  and  the  path  of  the  sash  would  require 
drawing  If  in.  full.  On  the  height  rod  the 
size  of  the  opening  is  frequently  taken  from 
the  top  of  the  stone  sill  to  the  under  side  of 
the  soffit  of  the  reveal,  or  the  springing  line 


the  under  side  of  the  arch,  and  the  thickness 
of  the  oak  sill  above  the  sill  line,  and  space 
out  the  remaining  heights  as  shown  in  Fig. 
1415.  As  this  is  a  sohd  mulhon  frame  with 
the  side  lights  fixed,  provision  has  to  be 
made  for  carrying  the  cords  from  the  central 


WINDOW   SASHES   AND  CASEMENTS. 


435 


pair  of  sashes  to  the  weights  in  the  outside 
boxings.  In  the  case  of  the  top  sash,  this  is 
accompHshed  by  making  a  plough  groove 
in  the  head  of  the  outside  side  Hghts  as 
shown  at  a  in  the  conventional  view  (Fig. 
1418),  and  in  the  bottom  sash  by  taking 
the  cord  over  pulleys  in  the  mullion  and 
pulley  stile,  and  concealing  it  in  the  side 
openings  by  cover  slips,  as  shown  at  b  in  the 
conventional  view  (Fig.  1418).  These  must 
be  wide  enough  to  reach  from  the  face  of  the 
top  Ught  to  the  face  of  the  frame,  must  be 
beaded  on  the  edge  to  match  the  guard 
beads  with  which  they  mitre,  and  ploughed 


Fig.  1419. — Isometric  View  of  Joint  of  Mullion 
and  Lining  with  Sill. 

on  the  rear  side  with  a  similar  groove  to  the 
head  of  the  top  light.  This  arrangement 
is  shown  at  Fig.  1418.  It  is  assumed  that 
the  stuff  is  machine  wrought. 

Quantities  for  Solid  Mullion  Frame. — 
One  oak  sill,  length  2  in.  longer  than  out 
to  out  of  frame,  3  in.  by  5|  in.,  wrought  to 
section  ;  one  head,  length  ditto  by  IJ  in. 
by  4J  in.  ;  two  mullions,  length  out  of  head 
to  out  of  sill,  2  in.  by  4J  in.  ;  two  pulley 
stiles,  length  clear  between  sight  lines  of 
head  and  sill  plus  housings  by  1  in.  by  4^  in.  ; 
two  back  hnings,  length  inside  of  head  to  out 
of  sill,  by  i  in.  by  5  in.  ;  two  inside  linings, 
IJ  in.  longer  than  height  of  frame  over  all, 
by  1  in.  by  4|  in.  ;  one  head  lining  (inside), 
length  1  in.  longer  than  clear  between  pulley 
stiles,  by  1  in.  by  3  in.  ;  one  head  Hning  (out- 
side), length  ditto  by  1  in.  by  4f  in.  ;  two 
outside  linings  ditto  to  inside  ;  two  mullion 


linings,  1  in.  longer  than  clear  between  head 
and  sill,  by  1  in.  by  3J  in.  ;  six  parting 
beads,  inside  of  head  to  out  of  sill,  by  f  in. 
by  1  in.  ;  two  parting  slips  ditto  by  J  in.  by 
2  in.  ;  six  guard  beads  1  in.  longer  than  inside 
of  head  to  inside  of  sill  by  |  in.  by  1 J  in.  ;  one 
ditto  length  of  central  opening  head  ;  three 
sill  guard  beads,  length  between  pulley 
stiles  and  mullions  by  |  in.  by  1 J  in.  bevelled 
to  section  ;  two  cover  beads,  length  equal 
width  of  side  hghts  by  f  in.  by  3f  in.  This 
completes  the  frame.  Sizes  for  sashes  will 
be  taken  from  the  rod  in  a  similar  manner, 
allowing  IJ  in.  longer  over  all  for  stiles,  and 
I  in.  longer  for  rails  and  bars.  Remember 
that  brackets  are  to  be  worked  on  top 


Fig.  1420. — Top  of  Mullion,  showing  Pulleys  and 
Tenon. 

sashes  (see  a.  Fig.  1343).  The  above  sizes 
are  finished  ones  for  the  planing  machinist. 
The  converter  will  require  a  separate  list, 
with  an  extra  J  in.  allowed  for  each  side 
wrought.  Thus  the  mullion  size  to  him 
would  be,  length  as  above,  by  2J  in.  by 
4|  in.,  and  so  on. 

Construction  of  Solid  Mullion  Frame. — 
Before  beginning  to  set  out  the  stuff,  con- 
sider how  the  frame  is  to  be  constructed. 
The  pulley  stiles  will  be  housed  into  head 
and  sill  in  the  usual  way,  as  explained  at  the 
beginning  of  this  section.  The  mullions 
will  be  tenoned  through  head  and  sill  as 
indicated  in  Figs.  1419  and  1420,  and 
painted  and  wedged  ;  they  will  also  be  kept 
flush  on  the  inside  as  shown  in  the  half 
horizontal  section  (Fig.  1417),  the  outside 
lining  being  nailed  on.  The  head  linings 
will  run  right  across  the  frame  until  they 
meet  the  side  linings  ;  they  are  not  cut 
between  the  mulhons  (see  Fig.  1418, 
which    shows    the    arrangement    of  the 


436 


CAKPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


cords),  as  this  weakens  the  frame.  The 
cover  beads  are  cut  tight  between  pulley 
stile  and  mullion,  and  are  held  in  posi- 
tion by  the  guard  bead  on  one  edge  and 
the  parting  bead  on  the  other  ;  remember 
that  this  cuts  under  the  cover  piece  (see 
Fig.  1418).  When  pocket  pieces  are  cut  in 
the  centre  of  the  pulley  stiles,  inside  linings 
can  be  fixed ;  when  cut  in  the  side,  a  dis- 
tance of  15  in.  or  18  in.  has  no  lining,  which 
is  objected  to  by  some  architects,  who 
consider  that  the  pulley  stiles  are  thus 
considerably  weakened. 

Setting  Out  Solid  Mullion  Frame. — As  a 
precaution,  run  the  rule  over  the  stuff  and 
see  that  the  sizes  are  correct ;  if  not,  note 
the  necessary  allowances  to  be  made.  Take 
the  head,  lay  it  on  the  rod,  face  side  down, 
and  strike  over  sight  or  face  lines  of  pulley 
stiles,  mull'ons,  and  parting  slips.  Turn 
it  back  ;  mark  over  J-in.  grooves  for  heads 
of  pulley  stiles  ;  set  mortices  for  mulhons 
J  in.  back  from  the  sight  line,  and  mortices 
for  parting  slips  to  lines  drawn  ;  gauge  the 
mulHon  mortices  from  inside  |  in.  thick 
and  one  side  in  line  with  parting  bead  (see 
Figs.  1417  and  1419).  Mortices  for  parting 
slips  may  be  pencilled  on  in  line  with  the 
parting  bead  (see  rod.  Fig.  1417).  Gauge 
everything  from  the  inside.  Pair  the  sill 
with  the  head,  and  strike  over  all  the  sight 
lines  with  the  exception  of  the  parting  slip 
mortices.  Outside  the  pulley  stile  face  lines, 
mark  the  housing,  which  is  of  the  thickness 
of  the  pulley  stile  plus  the  wedging.  The 
depth  should  be  J  in.  more  than  the  lower 
point  of  the  weathering  ;  more  is  unneces- 
sary, merely  weakening  the  sill  without 
strengthening  the  stile.  Square  over  the 
shoulder  lines  of  the  linings  on  both  faces 
in  line  with  the  pulley  stile  ;  run  the  gauge 
on  for  the  sinkings  ;  these  will  be  found  on 
plan.  Square  over  the  mortices  for  the 
mullions,  run  the  mortice  gauge  on  the  end, 
and  transfer  the  lines  to  the  sunk  faces 
with  the  rule  from  outside.  Gauge  the 
plough  grooves  for  the  window -board  and 
the  water  bar  (see  section.  Fig.  1415). 

Pulley  Stiles  of  Solid  Mullion  Frame. — 
Lay  one  on  the  rod,  and  strike  over  the  sight 
lines  of  head  and  sill,  turn  up,  and  mark 
over  If  in.  at  bottom — this  amount  will 
vary,  however,  with  weathering — and  f  in. 


at  top  for  housings.  Set  out  the  pocket 
6  in.  up  from  the  sight  line  ;  the  length  will 
vary  as  the  height  of  frame  ;  usually  keep 
them  2  in.  shorter  than  the  weights.  Mark 
over  at  the  top  end  mortices  for  pulleys. 
(It  will  be  noted  that  the  pulleys  have  to  be 
kept  close  up  to  the  head  of  the  frame, 
allowing  just  clearance  for  the  wheels  to 
turn  ;  sometimes  purpose-made  pulleys  are 
used  ;  where  ordinary  pulleys  are  used,  file 
the  top  ends  off  J  in.  above  the  wheel,  and, 
when  fixing,  keep  them  J  in.  above  the 
shoulder  of  the  mullion,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
1420,  and  house  them  into  the  head,  thus 
fixing  the  top  ends.)  Gauge  the  rebates, 
the  inside  one  on  the  face,  the  outside  one 
on  the  back,  and  plough  groove  f  in.  for 
parting  bead,  which  is  as  much  out  of  centre 
of  the  stile  as  the  guard  bead  overhangs  the 
inside  lining  (see  Figs.  1417  and  1418). 
With  the  squaring  over  of  the  shoulder  of  the 
housing  on  the  top  back  side,  and  gauging 
J  in.  full  tongue  on  the  end,  the  pulley 
stiles  are  finished  ;  the  mullions  may  be 
set  out  from  these.  With  the  exception 
that  no  housings  have  to  be  allowed,  the  top 
ends  being  shouldered  at  the  sight  line,  and 
the  bottom  the  same  inside  (on  outside  allow- 
ing the  sinking,  and  marking  the  shoulder 
to  bevel  of  sill),  it  is  a  wise  precaution  to 
allow  this  rather  full,  as  sills  may  vary. 
Gauge  for  parting  grooves  and  tenons.  To 
find  the  position  for  mortices  for  pulleys, 
draw  lines  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the 
sashes  on  each  side  of  the  parting  groove  ; 
the  centre  of  this  will  be  the  centre  of  the 
mortices — make  them  so  that  the  box  of  the 
pulley  fits  tight.  The  linings  require  gauging 
for  the  various  plough  grooves,  or  rather, 
one  of  each  kind  should  be  sufficient  for  the 
machine,  as,  when  once  set,  all  will  be  run 
through  exactly  ahke.  Mark  sight  lines 
on  the  edge  of  the  outside  linings,  and  run 
f-gauge  on  each  end  for  a  saw  cut.  The 
pieces  will  be  cut  ofi  when  fitting  up. 

Cover  Beads. — Draw  these  on  the  section, 
and  gauge  the  groove  on  the  back  (see  Fig. 
1418). 

Beads. — Draw  on  sections,  and  that  com- 
pletes the  setting  out  of  the  frame.  In 
setting  out  for  machine  work,  all  stuff  that 
is  moulded  should  have  a  section  drawn 
on  the  face  of  one  piece,  with  a  reference 


WINDOW    SASHES   AND  CASEMENTS. 


437 


to  the  number  required.  These  sections 
should  be  drawn  exactly  to  size,  without  any 
allowances  ;  mark  these  on  the  length  of 
the  shoulders,  etc.  On  the  other  hand,  all 
tongues,  rebates,  cross-cut  grooves,  etc., 
should  have  allowances  for  fitting  and 
cleaning  off,  and  sections  drawn  accord- 
ingly; plough  grooves  in  the  direction  of 
grain,  and  mortices,  should  be  marked 
exactly  as  wanted.  The  setting  out  of 
sashes,  having  been  fully  described  early 
in  this  section,  will  not  be  repeated  here. 
Remember,  however,  that  as  side  lights  in 


nailing  the  pulley  stiles  (note,  avoid  the 
pulleys)  ;  lay  it  on  the  bench,  outside  down, 
and  square  the  frame  ;  cramp  up  the  mul- 
lions,  paint  the  wedges,  and  wedge  up.  Fix 
the  sill  to  a  bench  piece,  square  with  a  rod, 
and  fix  the  head  to  bench  top,  cut  off  ends  of 
wedges,  level  sinking  of  sill  with  pulley  stile, 
cut  away  the  piece  of  tongue  on  the  ends 
of  head  to  let  lining  run  up,  and  fix  on 
inside  linings  ;  cut  the  head  lining  tightly 
between  these,  and  nail  on.  Keep  the  out- 
side edge  flush  on  back,  clean  off,  and  fit 
guard  beads  in ;    these  should  be  rebate 


Fig.  1421. — Half  Horizontal  Section  through  Venetian  Sash  Frame  with  Double  Weights 


Fig.  1422. — Horizontal  Section  through  Mullion 
arranged  for  Four  Weights. 

this  frame  have  to  be  fixed,  they  should 
be  set  out  rather  wider  than  would  be  the 
case  if  they  were  hung. 

Fitting  Up  Solid  Mullion  Frame. — Examine 
all  grooves,  housings,  and  mortices  ;  see 
that  they  are  of  the  required  depth,  and 
clear  the  wedging.  Next  fit  the  pocket 
pieces,  running  the  plough  groove  through  ; 
fit  in  the  pulleys,  and  clean  off  the  stiles. 
Do  the  same  with  the  mullions,  and  fit  the* 
parting  beads  ;  also  fit,  that  is,  mullet, 
all  tongues.  Take  a  shaving  ofi  the  edges 
and  bottom  ends  of  the  outside  linings  ; 
these  cannot  be  done  afterwards,  as  the 
sill  projects  J  in.,  or  should  do,  to  allow  for 
shrinkage.  Wedge  the  pulley  stiles  in  the 
sill  out  of  winding  with  each  other,  drive  in 
the  mullions,  and  put  the  head  on,  well 


Fig.  1423. — Horizontal  Section  through  Mullion 
arranged  for  Double  Weights. 

mitered  (see  Fig.  1436).  Turn  over  and  re- 
peat the  process,  first  fitting  in  parting  beads 
and  slips,  finally  nailing  on  the  back  linings, 
and  blocking  the  head.  Rub  a  block  on 
the  joint. 

Double  Weight  Venetian  Sash  Frame. 

The  second  class  of  Venetian  frames, 
shown  in  the  half  horizontal  section  (Fig. 
1421),  is  for  wider  openings  supported  and 
divided  by  thin  brick  or  stone  mulHons.  In 
these  cases  the  whole  six  sashes  can  be  hung  ; 
but  they  must  be  about  equal  in  size.  Full 
details  are  illustrated  in  Figs.  1421  to  1437. 
If  it  is  desired  to  hang  all  the  sashes,  and 
the  size  of  the  pier  or  mullion  restricts  the 
boxing  to  about  6  in.,  there  would  not  be 
room  for  two  sets  of  weights.    A  special 


438 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


form  of  weight  then  used  in  the  centre  box- 
ings is  square  in  section,  with  a  pulley  cast 
in  the  top  end  through  which  the  cord  is 
passed,  with  its  ends  taken  over  the  pulleys 
and  fastened  to  the  top  or  bottom  sashes  on 
each  side,  as  shown  in  the  sectional  view, 


edge  of  the  sash  stile.  Fig.' 1423  shows  an 
enlarged  section  of  the  boxed  mullion  ;  Fig. 
1425  a  sectional  elevation  of  the  top  end 
with  the  outside  lining  off,  showing  weight  in 
position  with  top  sash  down  and  bottom  one 
up.    The  housings  for  the  pulley  stiles  of  the 


Fig.  1425.— Sectional  Eleva- 
tion through  Upper  Part  of 
Boxing  (One  Weight  serving 
Two  Sashes). 


Fig.  1424.— Vertical 
Section  through  Head 
and  Sill. 


Fig.  1426.— Portion  of  Sill  showing 
Housings,  Weathering,  etc. 


Fig.  1425.  Thus,  for  each  set  of  three  sashes, 
four  weights  are  made  to  answer.  Of 
course,  in  this  kind  the  sashes  must  be  very 
similar  in  size,  as  the  double  weight  has  to 
equal  twice  the  half  weight  of  each  sash  ;  and 
if  one  sash  was  much  heavier  than  the  other, 
the  lighter  one  would  be  continually  pulled 
up.  This  tendency  can  to  some  extent  be 
checked  by  inserting  a  piece  of  cork  in  the 


mullions  are  stopped  on  the  outside  of  the 
sill  as  shown  in  Fig.  1426,  and  the  bottom 
ends  of  the  outside  Hnings  should  be  tongued 
on  the  back  side  into  the  sill.  The  inside 
linings  should  run  over  the  sill  and  head  as 
in  an  ordinary  frame,  so  as  to  tie  the  frame 
together,  as  there  is  no  wedged  muUion  in 
this  case.  The  pulleys  can  be  fixed  as  usual 
about  IJ  in.  down  from  the  top  ;  only  one 


WINDOW   SASHES   AND  CASEMENTS. 


439 


pocket  will  be  wanted  in  each  mullion. 
Thinner  pulley  stiles  are  occasionally  used 
in  the  mullions,  to  gain  additional  room. 

Large  Venetian  Sash  Frame. 

The  third  class  of  Venetian  frame  is  for  the 
widest  openings,  with  thick  stone  or  brick 


and  sill  (see  Fig.  1426)  to  keep  it  in  posi- 
tion whilst  fixing  the  outside  hnings. 
Several  variations  have  been  introduced 
into  this  frame,  which  is  frequently  made 
entirely  of  oak.  The  head  is  made  2  in. 
thick,  with  a  planted  tongue  on  the  inside 
to  economise  labour  and  material.  The 


Fig.  1427. — Half  Horizontal  Section  through  Venetian  Sash  Frame. 


Fig.  1428. — Conventional  Sectional  View  through  Boxings  and  Mullions  of  Sash  Frame. 


piers  and  correspondingly  wide  mullions  in 
the  frames,  in  which  the  sashes  may  vary  in 
width  according  to  taste,  and  may  all  be 
hung,  or  part  hung  and  part  fixed.  In  Fig. 
1427  is  shown  half  horizontal  section  of  a  very 
large  frame,  with  sashes  of  varying  width  and 
a  wide  boxed  mullion  to  cover  a  brick  pier, 
there  being  ample  room  for  two  sets  of 
weights  here.  The  conventional  sectional 
view  (Fig.  1428)  will  convey  a  general 
idea  of  the  construction  of  this  class  of 
frame.  The  box  is  divided  by  a  central 
lining,  which  should  be  housed  into  head 


tongues  are  necessary  because  in  hardwood 
the  linings  would  be  fixed  with  brads  driven 
on  the  skew  through  the  edge  and  hidden 
by  the  beads,  which  would  be  fixed  with  cups 
and  screws.  The  inside  linings  are  kept 
J  in.  back  from  the  pulley -stile  face  to  form 
a  rebate  for  the  bead  and  also  to  hide  the 
joint.  This  setting  back  must  be  allowed 
for  when  housing  the  sill,  for  the  shoulders 
on  the  sill  abutting  the  linings  will  stand 
J  in.  in  front  of  pulley  stile  (see  Figs.  1424  and 
1427).  The  parting  bead  is  run  through  the 
head,  the  sides  being  scribed  up  to  it.  The 


440 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  1429. — Lower 
Part  of  Pulley  Stile 
prepared  for  Pocket 
Piece  and  for  Ven-  1^ 
tilator  Slip. 


Fig.  1432.  Fig.  1433. 

Figs.  1432  and  1433. — Upper  Corner  of  Inside 
Linings  Framed  by  Mortice-and-Tenon  and 
Wedging. 


Fig.  1430.— End 
of  Ventilator 
Slip. 


Fig.  1431.— End  of 

Inside  Lining 
Notched  to  receive 
Ventilator  Slip. 


Fig.  1434. 


Fig.  1435. 


Fig.  1436. 


Fig.  1437. 


Figs.  1436  and  1437.— Method  of  Rebating  and 
Mitering  Beads. 


Figs.  1434  and  1435. —Dovetail  Joint  between 
Meeting  Rail  and  Stile  of  Lower  Sash. 

2^-in.  weathered  and  beaded  piece  shown 
on  the  sill  at  o  (Fig.  1424)  is  a  ventilator  slip. 
Its  purpose  is  to  allow  of  the  window  being 
opened  2  in.  between  the  meeting  rails  for 
ventilation,  whilst  avoiding  a  direct' draught 
at  the  bottom  rail.  It  is  weathered  so  that 
the  bottom  rail  of  the  sash  shall  fit  tightly 
against  it  when  shut,  but  instantly  release 


WINDOW   SASHES  AND  CASEMENTS. 


441 


itself  when  lifted.  It  should  be  inserted  in 
the  frame  before  fixing  the  inside  linings, 
being  cut  in  between  the  tongues  of  the 
pulley  stiles  as  shown  in  Fig.  1429.  Cut  a 
piece  out  of  these  to  fit  the  bevel,  then  form 
a  bareface  tenon  on  the  shp  (see  Fig.  1430) 
and  notch  the  lining  over  it  (see  Fig.  1431). 
This  secures  it  firmly  in  place.  The  tongue 
should  be  well  painted  before  insertion.  In 
this  class  of  frame  the  linings  are  usually 
framed  at  the  corners  as  shown  in  Figs.  1432 
and  1433,  the  head  linings  running  through 
and  the  mullion  linings  tenoned  into  them 


of  the  ends  of  the  meeting  rail  and  the  stile 
of  the  bottom  sash,  showing  the  best  form 
of  joint.  Always  leave  the  meeting  rails 
rather  wide,  so  that  they  can  be  fitted 
accurately  when  the  sashes  are  fitted  in,  and 
thus  prevent  rattHng.  Figs.  1436  and  1437 
show  the  rebate  mitre  of  the  beads.  The 
reference  letters  in  the  illustrations  of  the 
Venetian  sash  frames  (Figs.  1421  to  1426)  are 
as  follows      E,  pulley  stile  :  f,  head  ;  G, 


Fig.  1438. — Inside  Elevation  of  Sash  Window  with  Boxed  Shutters. 


Fig.  1439.— Vertical 
Section  of  Fig.  1438. 


Fig.  1440.— Horizontal  Section  of  Fig.  1438. 


and  also  the  sill.  The  frames  would  be  put 
together  as  described  for  the  solid  mullion 
frame,  except  that  the  joints  of  the  outside 
finings  would  be  painted,  and  the  joints  of 
the  inside  glued,  before  cramping  up  and 
wedging.  If  the  centre  lining  of  the  boxed 
mulhons  is  crooked,  it  may  be  kept  in 
position  for  getting  the  face  lining  on  by 
cutting  little  struts  tightly  between  it  and 
the  backs  of  the  pulley  stiles,  which  are 
knocked  away  by  the  weights  when  they 
go  in  and  removed  through  the  pocket. 
Figs.  1434  and  1435  are  perspective  sketches 


head  lining ;  h,  outside  lining ;  j,  inside 
lining  ;  k,  sill ;  l,  mulHon  ;  m,  weight ;  n, 
pulley  ;  o,  ventilator  shp  ;  p,  parting  sHp  ; 
Q,  meeting  rail ;  e,  sash  stile  ;  s,  guard  bead  ; 
T,  parting  bead. 

Sash  Windows  with  Boxed  Shutters 
in  Brick  =  and  =  a=Half  Wall. 

The  sash  window  shown  in  Figs.  1438  to 
1440  has  boxed  shutters,  and  is  built  in  a 
brick-and-a-half  wall.  Details  are  illus- 
trated by  Figs.  1441  to  1449.  Figs.  1441 
and  1442  are  conventional  views  of  parts 


442 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


of  the  outside,  which  is  built  in  Flemish 
bond  on  the  face,  with  old  English  backing. 
A  camber  gauged  arch  is  shown,  having  a 
straight  extrados  and  cambered  intrados, 
the  depth  of  the  arch  at  the  springing  being 
12  in.  Fig.  1443,  which  is  a  sectional  view 
of  the  window  as  seen  from  the  inside, 


various  parts  being  prepared  to  the  sizes 
indicated  in  the  enlarged  detail  (Fig.  1448). 
The  sill  is  ploughed  and  connected  to  the 
stone  sill  by  a  1-in.  by  J-in.  galvanised  iron 
bar.  The  wooden  sill  is  also  prepared  to 
receive  the  tongue  of  the  window-board  as 
shown  at  Fig.  1447.    The  head  hning  and 


Fig.  1441. — Conventional  Sec- 
tional View  of  Top  Corner  of 
Window. 


Fig.  1442. — Sectional  View  of 
Bottom  Corner  of  Window 
showing  Sill,  etc. 


Fig.  1443. — Sectional  View 
of  Window  from  Inside. 


shows  the  top  corners  of  the  sash,  shutters, 
and  architraves.  Conventional  views  showing 
the  details  of  the  brickwork  inside  are  given 
at  Figs.  1445  and  1446  ;  4 J -in.  reveals  are 
provided  for  the  sash  frame,  and  there  is  a 
4J-in.  recess  for  the  shutters.  A  wooden  lintel 
is  shown,  on  which  a  core  is  formed,  and  on 


Fig.  1444. — Conventional  View  from  Inside  of 
Lower  Corner  of  Window,  Shutters,  etc. 


the  upper  ends  of  the  inside  lining  are 
grooved  to  receive  the  tongue  of  the  soffit 
lining.  Both  this  lining  and  the  window- 
board  have  to  be  cut  round  the  frame  as 
shown  at  Fig.  1447.    The  window-board  is 


Fig.  1445. — ^General  View  from  Inside  of  Upper 
Part  of  Opening 


this  a  two-ring  relieving  arch  is  built.  The 
Gtone  sill  is  shown  G  in.  by  11  in.,  with  level 
stools  at  each  end  for  brick  jambs.  It  is 
tool-sunk  and  weather-throated,  and  grooved 
for  the  metal  weather-bar  as  shown  at  Fig. 
1449.  The  cased  sash  frame  with  double- 
hung  sashes  is  of  the  ordinary  character,  the 


ploughed  to  receive  a  small  moulding  under- 
neath, as  shown  at  Figs.  1438  and  1439.  It 
is  also  prepared  with  a  nosing,  and  returned 
at  the  ends  as  shown.  The  vertical  inside 
linings  are  grooved  to  receive  the  tongue  of 
the  fillet  A,  to  which  the  shutters  are  hung. 
Linings  b  (Fig.  1448)  are  provided  with  re- 


WINDOW   SASHES  AND  CASEMENTS. 


443 


bates  on  the  outer  edge  for  the  beads  of  the 
shutters  to  stop  against.  These  Hnings  are 
tongued  into  the  sofht  Hnings  and  into  the 
window-board  (see  Fig.  1447),  and  are  also 
shghtly  bevelled  to  form  a  key  for  plaster- 
ing. A  fillet  c  (Fig.  1448),  with  a  bead  stuck 
on  its  edge,  is  fixed  to  the  back  edge  of  the 
vertical  linings  of  the  sash  frame,  an.d  is 


is  shown  at  Fig.  1438.  On  the  inside,  the 
opening  is  finished  with  5-in.  by  |-in.  facing 
grounds  d  (Fig.  1448),  the  outer  edge  being 
ovolo-moulded  and  the  back  edge  splayed 
to  receive  plastering.  On  these  facing 
grounds  4 J-in.  by  l|-in.  architrave  mouldings 
are  fixed  as  shown. 

French  Casements  to  Open  Inwards. 

Figs.  1450  to  1457  show  a  pair  of  French 
casements  hung  to  a  solid  frame,  with  tran- 
som, fanlight,  splayed  linings,  etc. 

Frame  and  Linings.  —  It  will  not  be 
necessary  to  describe  in  detail  the  construc- 


Tig.  1449.— Detail  of  Stone  Sill. 

slightly  splayed  to  form  a  key  for  the  plaster- 
ing. As  will  be  seen,  there  is  one  framed 
and  panelled  shutter  on  each  side,  the  panels 
being  bead-flush  on  the  inside,  and  with 
mouldings  planted  on  to  the  face  side.  Each 
shutter  is  hung  with  3-in.  wrought-iron 
butts  to  the  fillets  previously  mentioned. 
The  shutters  are  made  with  a  flap,  which 
(being  narrow)  is  not  framed,  but  is  formed 
of  a  piece  of  board  and  clamped  at  each 
end  to  prevent  warping.  The  shutter  and 
flap  are  connected  by  2J-in.  back-flap 
hinges.    A  shutter  bar  of  an  ordinary  form 


Fig.  1447. — Joints  in  Linings,  etc. 

tion  of  these,  as  it  is  similar  to  work  that 
has  already  received  attention.  General 
views  of  the  joints  in  the  frame  are  shown 
by  Figs.  1456  and  1457.  A  part  of  the 
horizontal  section  is  shown  on  a  larger  scale 
by  Fig.  1453. 

Casements  and  Fanlight. — The  construc- 
tion of  the  casements  and  fanlight  is 
identical  with  that  involved  in  sash  work 
already  treated  ;  it  is  therefore  only  neces- 
sary now  to  enumerate  the  special  features 
of  this  example.  The  casements  are  con- 
structed to  open  inwards,  and  when  therefore 
they  occupy  exposed  situations,  arrange- 
ments must  be  made  for  excluding  wet  and 
draught.    The  sill,  made  either  of  oak  or 


444 


CAHPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  1450.  Fig.  1451. 


Fig.  1450.— Half  Outside  and  Half  Inside 
Elevation  of  French  Casements 


Fig.  1451. — Vertical  Section  of 
Fig.  1450. 

Fig.  1452. — Horizontal  Section  of 
Fig.  1450. 


Fig.  1452. 


WINDOW   SASHES  AND  CASEMENTS. 


445 


teak,  is  double-sunk  and  splayed  to  receive 
a  special  water  bar  as  shown.  This  is  prob- 
ably one  of  the  best  methods  of  excluding 
wet.  The  water  bar  is  hinged,  and,  when 
the  casements  are  closed,  is  held  up  against 
the  moulded  weatherboard  (as  shown  at 
Fig.  1454)  by  the  striking  plate  screwed  to 
the  bottom  rail  of  the  casements.  The  under 
side  of  the  sill  is  throated  for  weathering, 
and  ploughed  for  a  metal  water  bar,  which  is 


Fig.  1453. — Enlarged  Detail  of  Horizontal  Section 
(Fig.  1452). 

inserted  to  prevent  water  finding  its  way 
between  the  wooden  sill  and  the  stone  sill. 
The  wooden  sill  is  to  be  also  ploughed  on 
the  inside  to  receive  the  floorboards.  A 
section  through  the  sill  and  water -bar  when 
the  casements  are  open  is  presented  by  Fig. 
1455.  The  frame  is  ovolo-moulded  outside, 
and  lamb's-tongue  moulded  inside.  The 
jambs  are  moulded  inside  and  out,  rebated 
with  hollow  sinking  to  receive  round  projec- 
tion of  stile  of  casement,  and  ploughed  on 
the  inside  to  receive  splay  linings,  as  shown 


I,. 

m 

III 

I!  . 

rm 


Fig.  1454.— 
Enlarged  Detail 
of  Vertical 
Section  (Fig. 
1451). 


446 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


at  Figs.  1452  and  1453.  The  transom  is 
moulded  inside  and  out,  and  rebated  to  re- 
ceive the  head  of  the  casement ;  and  on  the 
upper  side  is  sunk,  splayed,  and  throated 
to  receive  the  bottom  rail  of  the  fanlight 
(see  Figs.  1451  and  1454).  The  head  of 
the  frame  is  moulded,  rebated  for  the  head 
of  the  fanlight,  and  ploughed  to  receive  the 
head  of  the  splay  linings,  as  shown 
at  Figs.  1451  and  1454.    The  casements 


Fig.  1455. — Section  through  Sill  and 
Water  Bar  (Casements  Open). 

are .  ovolo -moulded  and  hung  folding,  the 
meeting  stiles  having  a  hooked  joint  with 
moulded  fillet  on  the  outside.  This  fillet 
may  be  worked  on  the  solid  as  shown  in  the 
illustrations,  but  it  is  frequently  nailed  on. 
The  glass  is  shown  fixed  in  with  beads  from 
the  outside.  The  bottom  rail  is  prepared 
for  the  metal  water  bar,  and  a  moulded 
weatherboard  is  fixed  to  it  (see  Figs.  1451 
and  1454).    The  fanlight  is  hung  to  the 


Fig.  1456. — Joint  between  Jamb  and  Head. 


transom  to  open  inwards,  as  shown.  The 
ground  is  ploughed  to  receive  the  tongue  of 
the  Hnings.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  ground 
also  forms  a  facing,  thus  representing  part 


of  the  architrave,  which  is  stopped  at  the 
bottom  by  a  plinth  as  shown. 

Elliptical  =  headed  Window^  with 
Casements  and  Fanlight  in 
Solid  Frame. 

The  case  illustrated  by  Figs.  1458  to  1465 
shows  a  solid  frame  with  a  transom  and  an 


elliptical  head,  a  pair  of  casements  opening 
inwards,  and  a  fanHght  which,  being  hinged 
to  the  transom,  also  opens  inwards  if  desired. 
Casements  opening  inwards  are  less  fre- 
quently adopted  than  those  opening  out- 
wards. Objections  to  the  former  are  that 
in  exposed  situations  it  is  comparatively 
difficult  to  make  them  weather-tight ;  while, 
if  they  are  not  kept  securely  fastened,  they 
are  apt  to  be  blown  open  by  a  sudden  gust 
of  wind,  when  more  or  less  serious  damage 
may  be  done.  They  also  interfere  with  the 
window  hangings,  furniture,  ornaments,  etc., 
which  are  often  placed  near  windows.  In 
spite  of  their  obvious  disadvantages,  how- 
ever, inwardly  opening  casements  are  some- 
times adopted  ;  hence  it  has  been  deemed 
desirable  to  treat  of  a  typical  example  here. 

The  Frame. — The  principal  points  in  the 
construction  of  the  frame  are  as  follows. 
As  will  be  seen  from  Figs.  1461  and  1463, 
the  outside  edge  of  the  moulding  has  a  large 
ovolo  moulding  worked  on,  while  the  inner 
edge  is  finished  with  an  ogee.  The  jambs 
have  tenons  wedged  into  mortices  in  the 
oak  sill,  as  illustrated  in  previous  cases. 
The  oak  sill  is  rebated,  throated,  splayed, 
and  weathered  on  the  under  edge,  and 


448 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


ploughed  to  receive  the  tongue  of  the  window 
board  and  the  metal  water  bar  as  illustrated 
in  section  at  A  (Fig.  1462).  Any  moisture 
finding  its  way  under  the  bottom  rail  of 


(Fig.  1462).  The  head  is  constructed  in  two 
thicknesses,  each  layer  breaking  joint  as 
indicated  at  a  b  c  (Fig.  1464).  The  jambs 
are  cut  to  receive  each  thickness  of  the  head 


Fig.  1461. — Horizontal  Section 
through  Casement. 


Fig,  1464. — Construction  of  Head,  and  Method  of 
Jointing  with  Jamb  and  Transom. 

the  casements  would  drip  into  the  throating 
of  the  sill,  and  for  carrying  ofi  this  moisture 
three  or  four  holes  should  be  bored  from 
the  throating  to  the  weathering  of  the  out- 
side bottom  edge  of  the  sill,  as  shown  at  b 


Fig.  1465.— Method  of  Jointing  Soffit  Lining  and 
Jamb  Lining. 

as  shown  at  d  (Fig.  1464).  Mortices  are 
prepared  as  indicated  at  c  and  D  to  receive 


WINDOW  SASHES 

I 

1  the  tenons  of  the  transom  shown  at  e  (Fig. 
1464).  When  the  several  pieces  have  been 
fitted  together  satisfactorily,  the  pieces 
forming  the  head  are  glued  and  screwed  to- 
gether, the  screws  being  inserted  from  the 
outside  layer,  behind  the  portion  that  will 
be  hidden  by  the  reveal  of  the  arch. 

Casements  and  Fanlight.  —  The  case- 
ments are  ovolo-moulded  inside,  and  re- 
bated on  the  outside  for  glass.  The  hang- 
ing stiles  are  ploughed  with  a  round-edged 
plough  iron,  so  as  to  fit  over  a  weather- 
bead  as  shown  in  Fig.  1463.  The  meeting 
stiles  are  rebated,  and  have  a  hooked  joint, 
and  the  edges  are  splayed  to  facilitate 
opening.  The  bottom  rails  of  the  casements 
are  rebated,  and  have  a  moulded  weather- 
board fixed  on  as  shown  at  c  (Fig.  1462).  A 
metal  water  bar  is  not  shown,  but  the  ar- 
rangement illustrated,  in  which  the  bar 
is  formed  entirely  in  the  wood,  will  be  found 
at  once  simple  and  quite  effective.  The  prin- 
cipal point  to  notice  in  the  construction  of 
the  fanlight  is  that  the  head  is  formed  of 
two  or  three  pieces  jointed  and  fixed  to- 
gether with  handrail  screws  or  hammer- 
headed  keys. 

Grounds,  Linings,  and  Architraves. — 
The  grounds  are  of  the  usual  form,  and 
are  fixed  to  the  brickwork  in  the  usual 
manner.  They  are  clearly  shown  in  the 
sections.  The  linings  are  square  In  the 
case  of  painted  work,  the  head  pieces  might 
be  either  formed  of  pieces  jointed  together 
and  sawn  out  by  a  handsaw  to  form  the 
soffit,  or  else  saw-kerfed.  The  latter  method, 
however,  is  usually  unsatisfactory.  Un- 
doubtedly the  better  method  is  to  have  a 
veneer  wide  enough  and  long  enough  to 
bend  over  a  cylinder  prepared  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  to  fit  and  glue  on  staves  at  the 
back.  A  portion  of  the  lining  prepared  in 
this  manner  is  shown  at  a  (Fig.  1465).  The 
whole  process  of  preparing  the  soffit  lining 
on  this  principle  will  be  dealt  with  in  a  later 
section.  The  soffit  lining  and  jamb  lining 
are  connected  by  grooves  and  a  tongue,  as 
illustrated  at  Fig.  1465.  The  head  having 
been  jointed  with  the  jamb,  the  key-block 
c  is  between  the  blocks  d  and  e  ;  and  then 
by  gluing  the  joint  and  inserting  a  pair  of 
wedges,  all  is  held  firmly  together.  The 
wedges  in  the  blocks  should  be  cut  so  that 


AND  CASEMENTS.  449 

the  wedges  press  against  f  in  the  block  c, 
and  against  the  upper  edges  g  of  the  blocks 
D  and  E.  The  architrave  is  made  in  two  or 
three  pieces,  and  prepared  as  explained  in 
examples  previously  described.  The  window 
board  has  a  tongue  which  fits  into  a  groove 
in  the  frame  as  shown.  The  front  edge  has 
a  rounded  nosing,  and  is  finished  off  with 
a  moulding  underneath  as  shown  at  d  (Fig. 
1462). 

French  Casements  with  Boxing 
Shutters  to  a  Seg^mental  =  headed 
Opening^. 

Fig.  1469  shows  the  half  elevation  of  a 
casement  opening  with  segmental  head, 
fitted  with  a  transom  head  with  casements 
opening  outwards.  Figs.  1466  to  1468 
respectively  represent  the  elevation,  plan, 
and  section,  which  show  the  inside  of  the 
frame,  casements,  fanHght,  boxing  shutters, 
architraves,  etc.,  complete.  The  main  di- 
mensions are  figured  on  the  illustrations. 

The  Frame. — Mortice  and  tenon  joints 
are  used  between  the  head  and  jambs, 
and  also  between  the  jambs  and  the  tran- 
som. The  intersection  of  the  mouldings 
is  formed  by  mitering.  The  jambs  are 
ploughed  with  a  rounded  iron  in  the  rebate, 
to  receive  a  weathering  bead,  which  is 
worked  on  the  solid  of  the  hanging  stiles  of 
the  casements,  as  illustrated.  The  sill 
should  be  of  oak  or  teak,  but  the  material 
for  the  other  parts  may  be  of  deal,  pitch- 
pine,  oak,  mahogany,  or  teak,  according  to 
requirement  or  class  of  building.  The 
general  construction  of  the  frame  is  shown 
in  the  illustrations,  and  reference  to  similar 
examples  previously  given  will  probably  be 
found  sufficient  to  render  further  descrip- 
tion superfluous. 

Casements. — In  this  example,  as  in  others, 
only  the  parts  being  immediately  dealt 
with  are  shown  by  the  view  representing 
the  rod,  the  complete  setting  out  of  the 
rod,  showing  the  frame,  etc.,  being  con- 
sidered superfluous  for  the  purpose  in  hand. 
Fig.  1478  represents  the  height  rod  for  the 
casements.  Projected  up  from  this  is 
represented  a  stile  (Fig.  1479),  set  out  ready 
for  mortising,  rebating,  and  moulding. 
The  stiles  would  be,  of  course,  set  out  in 
pairs,  the  method  of  procedure  being  very 


450 


CAEPENTUY  AND  JOINEllY. 


WINDOW   SASHES   AND  CASEMENTS. 


451 


similar  to  that  explained  early  in  this  so  that  they  can  be  rebated  and  moulded 
section  when  dealing  with  sashes.  The  in  reasonable  lengths.  Fig.  1483  shows  a 
lower  portion  of  the  stile  is  mortice-rebated,     portion  of  the  width  rod  for  casements. 


Fig.  1470. — Enlarged  Detail 
of  Horizontal  Section  at  A 
(Fig.  1467). 


the  moulding  mitered  ;  and  the  inside 
shoulder  and  haunching,  formed  so  that  it 
is  so  far  completed  to  receive  the  rail,  is 
shown  at  Fig.  1482.  On  account  of  the 
hooked  joint  between  the  meeting  stiles, 
the  top  and  bottom  rails  should  have  double 
tenons  in  breadth  fitting  to  these  stiles. 
When  only  single  tenons  are  used,  the 
short  end-grain  of  the  tenon  is  liable  to  break 
away  when  being  formed  into  the  hooked 
joint.  For  the  hanging  stiles,  single  tenons 
would  be  best,  because  of  the  projection. 
Fig.  1480  represents  a  vertical  bar  set  out  for 
tenons  and  mortised.  Fig.  1481  shows  one 
strip  of  stuff  set  out  for  parts  of  the  light 
B,  c  and  D  (Fig.  1466).  When  gauging  for 
the  mortices  and  tenons  for  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  bars,  it  should  be  noted  that  the 
mortices  and  tenons  are  thinner  where  the 
bars  intersect  than  where  they  join  the 
stiles  and  rails.  This  is  shown  at  b  and  e 
(Fig.  1473),  and  also  where  the  bars  are  set 
out  in  Figs.  1480  to  1486,  and  1491.  By 
placing  four  strips  together  and  setting  them 
out,  and  then  cramping  them  together  as 
shown  at  Fig.  1491,  the  shoulders  may  be 
entered  with  a  dovetail  saw  as  indicated, 


Fig.  1471.— Enlarged  Detail  of  Vertical  Section 
at  A,  B,  and  C  (Fig.  1468). 


Fig.  1472. — Conventional  Sectional  View  of  Inside  Top  Left-hand  Corner. 


WINDOW   SASHES  AND  CASEMENTS. 


453 


Projected  above  it,  at  Fig.  1484  (which  shows 
the  top  rail  completely  set  out),  a  top  cross- 
bar is  shown  set  out  for  mortices  and  tenons 
(Fig.  1485).  A  horizontal  bar  as  at  f  (Fig. 
1466)  is  shown  set  out  at  Fig.  I486.  The 
ends  A  and  b  are  afterwards  dovetailed  and 
mitered.  Four  of  these  bars  will  be  required, 
and  they  should  be  set  out  together.  The 
method  of  setting  out  and  entering  for  the 
shoulders  and  tenons  for  the  four  bars  form- 
ing the  marginal  square  in  the  top  of  the 


Fig.  1489  shows  a  piece  of  the  horizontal 
similarly  prepared,  with  dovetail  socket  cut 
ready  for  completion  as  shown  at  Fig.  1477. 
Where  the  tongues  of  the  bars  mitre  to- 
gether, they  may  be  strengthened  by  cut- 
ting a  chase  as  shown  at  a  and  b  (Figs.  1475 
to  1477),  and  gluing  in  a  small  hardwood 
key. 


Fig.  1474. 


Figs.  1474  and  1475. — 
Elevation  and  Plan  in- 
dicating Dovetail  Joint 
at  the  Mitering  of  Bars 
as  at  A  (Fig.  1466). 


Fig.  1473.— Details 
of  Joints,  Mitering, 
and  Scribing  be- 
tween Stiles,  Rails, 
and  Bars. 


Fig.  1475. 


Fig.  1477.— 
Mitering  and 
Dovetail  Socket 
of  Horizontal 
Bar. 


Fig.  1476.— 
Mitering  and  Dove- 
tail Pin  of  Vertical 
Bar. 


casements  is  shown  at  Figs.  1488  and  1489. 
To  make  a  good  job  of  these  four  angle- 
joints  of  the  marginal  squares  (one  angle  of 
which  is  lettered  a,  Fig.  1466),  they  should 
be  dovetailed  and  mitered  as  shown  by  the 
enlarged  elevation  and  plan  (Figs.  1474  and 
1475),  but  the  joint  will  be  more  clearly 
understood  on  reference  to  Figs.  1476  and 
1477.  Fig.  1488  shows  the  setting  out,  the 
cutting  of  the  dovetail  pin,  and  the  enter- 
ing of  the  shoulders  of  a  bar  ready  for 
moulding  (shown  completed  at  Fig.  1476). 


Rebating  and  Moulding  Sash  Bars  on 
the  Sticking  Board. — A  short  length  of 
a  suitable  form  of  sticking  board  for  the 
rebating  and  moulding  of  the  bars  is  shown 
at  Fig.  1490.  It  is  made  of  a  board  6  in. 
to  9  in.  wide,  and  of  any  suitable  length, 
the  base  being  dovetail-keyed  on  the  under 
side  as  indicated  at  d  and  e  (Fig.  1490)  to 
prevent  warping.  A  rebate  is  made  equal 
in  depth  to  the  rebate  of  the  bar,  so  that 
the  tongue  may  properly  bed  as  shown  at 
G  whilst  the  opposite  side  is  being  rebated. 


454 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


At  F  is  shown  a  piece  of  bar  in  position  for 
the  first  rebate.  The  strip  c  is  ploughed 
so  as  exactly  to  fit  the  tongue  of  the  bar 
whilst  the  sticking  of  the  moulding  is  being 
done,  as  indicated  at  h  and  k.  The  rebate 
and  plough  grooves  must  vary  according  to 
the  size  of  the  bars  being  worked  ;  hence 
several  sticking  boards,  each  for  a  different 
size,  will  be  found  in  most  workshops.  A 
stout  screw  is  generally  used  for  a  stop,  and 
the  back  end  is  held  by  a  bench  knife  being 
driven  into  the  cheek  and  board.  In  this 
example  mitering  is  shown  at  the  inter- 
section of  the  mouldings  of  the  stiles  and 
rails  (see  a  b,  Fig.  1473),  and  where  the  bars 
intersect  with  each  other  scribing  is  illus- 
trated, as  at  D  and  e  (Fig.  1473). 

Fanlight. — The  only  point  that  calls 
for  special  attention  in  this  is  that  both 
the  head  and  the  curved  marginal  bar 
may  be  got  out  in  one  piece. 

Fitting  the  Casements. — The  meeting 
stiles  are  rebated,  splayed,  and  hooked 
together  as  shown  by  the  section  (Fig.  1470). 
When  this  joint  is  found  to  be  satisfactory, 
the  bead  on  the  inside  to  break  the  joint 
is  worked,  and  the  moulded  weathering 
ploughed  for  and  fitted  in.  The  top  and 
bottom  of  the  casements  have  next  to  be 
fitted  to  the  head  and  sill,  the  bottom  rail 
being  rebated  and  throated  as  shown.  The 
casements  are  now  placed  together,  with  their 
meeting  stiles  fitting,  and  the  width  between 
the  rebates  of  the  frame  accurately  marked 
off  on  the  hanging  stiles  at  the  top  and 
bottom.  The  hanging  stiles  are  next  re- 
bated, sufficient  being  left  on  to  form  the 
projecting  weathering  beads,  which  are 
rounded  as  shown.  Then  the  stiles  are 
applied  to  the  frame,  and  the  necessary 
easing  is  done,  so  as  to  produce  a  good  fit. 
Between  the  meeting  stiles,  the  hanging 
stiles,  and  the  frame  a  sufficient  joint  must 
be  provided  to  allow  for  painting  or  pohsh- 
ing,  and  for  easy  opening  and  closing,  with- 
out any  binding.  The  outside  of  the  bottom 
rails  are  ploughed  (the  plough  groove  ex- 
tending to  the  edge  of  the  stiles)  to  receive 
a  moulded  weatherboard,  as  shown  at  a 
(Fig.  1471).  This  should  be  secured  with 
screws,  the  joining  parts  being  first  painted. 
Each  casement  is  hung  with  three  4-in. 
wrought-iron  or  brass  butt  hinges.  The 


WINT30W   Si\SHES   AND  CASEMENTS, 


455 


most  suitable  forms  of  fastening  are  espagno- 
lette  bolts. 

Boxing   Shutters. — The   arrangement  of 


Fig.  1482. — Lower  Portion  of  One 
Stile  completed  to  Receive 
Bottom  Rail  and  Bar. 


Fig.  1485.— 
Top  Cross  Bar 
Set    Out  for 
Mortising  and 
Tenoning. 

Fig.  1484.— 
Top  Rail  pro- 
jected from 
Rod. 


Fig.  1487.— Part  of  Top  Rail  Mortised. 

the  shutters  when  in  their  boxings  is  shown 
by  Fig.  1467.  At  b  in  Fig.  1467,  the  right- 
hand  half  is  indicated  by  dotted  lines  as 
closed.  The  wall  being  hollow,  and  thus 
thick,  allows  a  sufficient  recess  for  the 


Fig.  1488. 


Figs.  1488  and  1489. — Ends  of  Bars  for  Marginal 
Square. 

shutters  to  be  formed  of  four  leaves.  In  the 
case  of  thinner  walls,  six  or  even  eight  leaves 
might  be  used.  The  shutters  may  be  made 
to  open  and  close  in  one  length,  which  would 


456 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


include  the  panels  H,  K,  and  L  (Fig.  1466),  or 
may  open  and  close  in  two  sections.  The  lower 


part,  containing  the  panel  h,  is  closed  first, 
the  upper  edge  having  a  rebate  and  bead  as 
shown  at  o.    The  upper  part  contains  the 


panels  K  and  l,  the  bottom  edges  of  the 
leaves  being  rebated  at  o  on  the  back  so  as 


to  fit  against  the  lower  part.  Generally  the 
fanhght  is  left  free,  and  thus  the  framing 
at  M  is  dummy.    The  bottom  ends  of  the 


WINDOW   SASHES  AND  CASEMENTS. 


457 


Fig.  1494. 


Fig.  1492. — Inside 
Elevation  of  Ellip- 
tical-headed Sash 
Window. 

Fig.    1493.— Hori- 
zontal Section. 

Fig.   1494.— Verti- 
cal Section  on  A  B 
(Fig.  1492). 


20 


458 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  1495.— 
Enlarged  Detail  of 
Horizontal  Section. 


i 

,1 

the  bottom.  The  sashes  are 
shown  with  marginal  bars, 
which,  though  they  are  now  not 
usually  adopted  for  windows  of 


shutters  are  kept  off  the  floor  as  shown  at 
N  (Figs.  1466  and  1471),  to  allow  for  clear- 
ing the  carpet  or  rugs,  etc.  The  stiles  and 
rails  of  the  shutters  are  mortised  and  tenoned 
together  to  receive  bead-and-butt  or  bead- 
and-flush  panels,  facing  the  outside  when 
they  are  closed,  and  moulded  on  the  inside  as 
shown.  The  setting  out  and  general  pre- 
paration of  these  panels  is  almost  exactly 
the  same  as  in  door-making.  After  being 
wedged  up  and  cleaned  of!,  they  are  rebated 
and  fitted  together.  The  main  leaf  is  hung 
to  the  posts  of  the  door  frame  as  indicated 
at  Figs.  1467  and  1470.  The  two  leaves  are 
hung  together  by  back  flap  hinges.  The 
particular  casings  partly  forming  the  box- 
ings are  shown  at  Figs.  1467,  1470,  and  1472. 
The  curved  stiles  for  the  frame  soffit  may  be 
worked  in  the  solid  out  of  one  piece.  The 
panels  being  very  slightly  curved,  it  would 
certainly  be  the  more  simple  way  to  work 
these  out  of  the  solid. 

Elliptical  =  headed  Window  with 
Framed  and  Splayed  Linings. 

Figs.  1492  to  1494  represent  the  inside 
elevation,  plan,  and  vertical  section  of  an 
elliptical-headed  window  with  double-hung 
sashes,  cased  frame,  framed  panels,  splayed 
linings,  soffit,  and  window  back  with  elbows. 
The  inside  of  the  opening  is  finished  with 
architrave  mouldings,  with  plinth  blocks  at 


Fig.  1496.— 
Enlarged  Detail 
of  Vertical 
Section. 


this  class,  may  be  conveniently  introduced 
here  with  the  object  of  illustrating  and  ex- 
plaining the  method  of  bending  curved  sash 
bars.  The  preparing  of  the  stuff,  setting  out, 
mortising,  tenoning,  and  other  processes  in 


WINDOW   SASHES  AND  CASEMENTS. 


459 


the  making  of  the  frame  and  sashes,  being 
generally  identical  with  cases  previously 
treated,  it  is  here  only  necessary  to  describe 
the  new  features. 

Construction  of  Elliptical  Head  of  Sash 
Frame. — This  may  be  made  in  two  or  three 
pieces,  cut  out  of  the  solid,  jointed  a  little 
above  the  springing,  and  fastened,  as  shown 
at  Fig.  1498,  with  screws.  The  crown  joints 
or  radial  joints  (as  the  case  may  be)  are  fas- 
tened by  dowelHng  or  handrail  screws.  In 


side,  and  planed  true  with  a  compass  plane. 
The  pieces  to  form  the  parting  bead  should 
be  similarly  treated.  The  head  just  above 
the  springing  is  secured  to  the  pulley  stiles 
with  screws  as  indicated  at  e  (Fig.  1498). 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  head  does  not  finish 
at  the  springing,  but  at  a  sufhcient  distance 
above  to  allow  of  J  in.  projection,  as  at  f 
(Figs.  1497  and  1498).  This  is  to  allow  the 
stiles  of  the  sashes  to  butt  against  and  pre- 
vent the  bottom  sash  becoming  jammed. 


Fig.  1497.— Portion  of  Soffit  of  Head 
of  Frame,  and  its  Junction  with 
Face  of  Pulley  Stile. 


this  method  a  plough  groove  is  worked  out 
of  the  solid  to  receive  the  parting  bead, 
which  also  is  worked  out  of  the  solid.  Another 
method,  which  is  equally  good,  is  to  form 
the  head  in  three  laminations,  as  represented 
in  section  at  a  (Fig.  1496),  and  also  by  a,  b, 
and  c  in  the  conventional  views  (Figs.  1497 
and  1498),  where  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
thickness  on  the  inside  of  the  parting  bead 
may  be  made  of  three  pieces  round  the 
curve,  and  the  portion  of  the  parting  bead 
also  of  three  pieces,  while  the  outer  por- 
tion is  made  of  four  pieces.  These  pieces 
should  be  accurately  sawn  out  on  the  soffit 


Fig.  1498.— Method  of 
Connecting  Head  and 
Pulley  Stiles,  etc. 


Elliptical-headed  Linings.  —  These  are 
got  out  of  the  solid  in  two  or  three 
pieces,  which  are  jointed  together  and 
connected  to  each  other,  and  to  the  straight 
linings,  by  cross  tongues  (see  Fig.  1498). 
The  joints  are,  of  course,  glued,  and  the 
linings  are  nailed  on  in  the  usual  manner. 
The  head  linings  are  glued  and  blocked  as 
represented  at  Fig.  1498.  The  inside  head 
linings  may  be  ploughed  to  receive  the 
tongue  of  the  soffit,  so  as  to  correspond  with 
the  straight  inside  linings. 

Elliptical  Head  of  Sash. — This  is  made 
of  three  pieces,  the  joints  occurring  as  at 


4B0 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  1499.— Conventional  View  of  Part 
of  Stile  and  Head  of  Top  Sash. 


Fig.  1500. — General  View  of  Cylinder. 


Fig.  1501. — Connecting  Architrave  and  Plinth 
with  Slip  Dovetail  Tenon. 


Fig.  1502. — Method  of  Connecting  Architrave  and 
Plinth  by  Dovetail  Lapping. 

D,  E,  F  (Fig.  1492).  The  joints,  and  por- 
tions of  the  head  and  the  stile  showing 
the  joint  at  the  crown  separately,  are 
shown  at  A,  b,  and  c  (Fig.  1499).  The  pro- 
jecting shoulder  d  (Fig.  1499)  is  for  butting 
against  the  stop  of  the  head,  shown  at 
Fig.  1498. 

The  Arch  or  Cot  Bar. — This  may  be 
formed  of  two  pieces  and  worked  out  of  the 
solid,  joints  occurring  at  the  crown  and  a 
little  below  the  springing ;  but  a  more 
satisfactory  job  results  when  the  bar  is  made 


WINDOW  SASHES 


AND  CASEMENTS. 


461 


in  one  continuous  piece  to  meet  with  the 
two  margiiial  bars  c  and  h  (Fig.  1492).  A 
rib  or  cylinder  round  wbicli  to  bend  the  bar 
must  be  specially  made.  A  suitable  form 
for  this  purpose  is  illustrated  at  Fig.  1500, 
where  it  is  shown  constructed  of  two  thick- 
nesses. The  strip  of  wood  for  the  bar  should 
be  obtained  as  straight-grained  as  possible, 
and  should  either  be  steamed  or  be  soaked 
in  boihng  water,  steaming  yielding  the  better 
results.  Then,  by  means  of  hand  screws, 
the  strip  of  wood  should  be  gradually  bent 
round  and  fastened  to  the  cyhnder  as  illus- 


Fig.  1503.— Elevation  of  Circular  Bull's-eye 
Frame  with  Central  Sash. 

trated.  A  piece  of  hoop-iron  bent  round 
with  it  on  the  outside  will  be  found  useful 
in  preventing  fibres  of  the  wood  from  burst- 
ing out.  Wlien  the  bars  are  thick,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  form  them  of  two  thicknesses, 
gluing  them  together  as  they  are  bent  round 
the  cylinder.  It  is  best  to  let  the  strips  re- 
main on  the  cylinder  a  few  days,  so  that  they 
may  become  thoroughly  set  to  shape  ;  and, 
on  taking  off,"  they  should  be  kept  to  their 
shape  by  means  of  a  couple  of  stretchers. 
They  can  then  be  rebated  and  moulded. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  weaken  the  cot  bar 
by  mortising  for  tenons  of  radial  bars,  as 
these  latter  need  only  be  scribed  to  fit  the 
cot  bar,  and  then  each  one  secured  by  a  fine 


long  screw  inserted  through  the  cot  bar. 
It  is  more  satisfactory  if  these  bent  bars 
are  of  straight-grained  oak,  ash,  or  other 
hardwood  that  is  pliable.  Two  methods  of 
connecting  the  architraves  with  the  plinths 
by  dovetailing  are  illustrated  at  Figs.  1501 
and  1502.  After  the  joints  are  made  satis- 
factory, the  parts  will  be  glued  and  screwed 
together. 

Circular  Buirs=Eye  Frame  with 
Square  Centre  Sash  Hung  on 
Centres. 

Figs.  1503  and  1504  show,  respectively, 
the  elevation  and  the  vertical  section  of 


Fig.  1504. — Vertical 
Section  through  X  X 
(Fig.  1503). 


Fig. 


1505.— Enlarged 
Detail  at  B 
(Fig.  1503). 


a  circular  bull's-eye  frame  which  is  moulded 
inside  and  out.  The  elevation  is  divided  by 
four  stout  bars,  the  bars  forming  the  centre 
square  being  in  two  parts,  rebated  together 
so  as  to  form  a  square  sash,  which  is  hung  on 
centres  as  illustrated  in  the  section  (Fig. 
1504),  the  construction  being  shown  more 
clearly  in  the  conventional  sectional  view  at 
Fig.  1507.  The  frame  is  constructed  of 
four  pieces,  as  indicated  at  Fig.  1503.  The 
joints  may  be  held  together  with  handrail 
screws  and  dowels,  or  with  hammer-headed 
keys  and  tongues.  The  bars  are  moulded 
and  scribed  to  intersect  with  the  mouldings 


462 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


of  the  frame,  and  connected  by  mortice-and- 
tcnon  joints.  The  inside  of  the  bars  a,  b,  c, 
and  D  are  not  moulded,  but  are  rebated  and 
snghtly  splayed,  so  as  to  facilitate  the  open- 
ing and  closing  of  the  sash  (see  a  b  in  sec- 
tion, Fig.  1504,  and  see  also  Fig.  1505)o  The 
sash  is  made  of  four  pieces,  which  are  re- 
bated and  splayed,  and  fit  the  bars  just 
mentioned,  which  are  moulded  so  that  when 


the  sash  is  closed  it  completes  the  appear- 
ance of  four  bars  as  shown.  The  four  pieces 
forming  the  sash,  being  of  slight  thickness, 
must  be  dovetailed  and  mitered  as  shown 
(Fig.  1506).  If  additional  strengthening  is 
considered  desirable  at  the  angles,  four  thin 
br^  ss  brackets  may  be  let  in  flush,  screwed 
on  as  shown.  The  rebates  of  the  vertical 
bars  to  meet  those  on  the  stiles  of  the  sash 
are  on  the  inside  of  the  upper  portion  as  at 
A,  and  on  the  outside  of  the  lower  half  as  at 
B  (Fig.  1507).  The  hanging  of  the  sashes  on 
pivots  is  similar  to  that  explained  and  illus- 
trated in  the  next  example. 

Sash  Hung-  on  Pivots. 

A  solid  frame  with  weathered,  throated, 
and  sunk  sill,  and  sash  hung  on  pivots,  is 
shown  as  closed,  and  also  as  opened,  by  ver- 


tical section  at  Fig.  1508.  The  point  call- 
ing for  special  attention  is  the  setting  out 
of  the  cutting  of  the  beads  so  as  to  allow  of 
these  cuts  properly  clearing  as  the  sash  is 


Fig.  1507. — Conven- 
tional Sectional 
View  of  Part  of 
Frame,  and  Sash 
opened. 


opened  or  closed.  When  setting  out  the  rod, 
have  at  least  a  portion  of  the  sash  opened 
to  the  full  extent  required,  the  beads  being 
included,  as  indicated  at  a  b  (Fig.  1508). 
Where  the  outer  edges  of  the  beads  on  the 
sash  when  opened  intersect  with  the  Hnes 
of  the  beads  fixed  to  the  frame  as  at  c  and  d, 
between  these  two  points  draw  the  line  c  D ; 
draw  D  F,  and  c  e  at  right  angles  to  c  d,  and 
then  there  will  be  the  Hnes  of  the  cuts  for  the 


WINDOW    SASHES    AND  CASEMENTS. 


463 


beads  fixed  to  the  frame.  With  centre  g  and 
radii  g  c  and  g  d,  determine  the  points  h 
and  K.  Again  with  g  as  centre,  and  g  e  and 
G  P  as  radii,  determine  the  points  l  and  m. 
Then  clearly  h  l  and  k  m  are  the  splays  for 
the  beads  fixed  to  the  sash  ;  and  when  the 
sash  is  closed  this  would  meet  c  e  and  f  d 
respectively.  When  the  pivot  is  fixed  on  the 
frame,  and  the  slotted  plate  on  the  stile  of 
the  sash,  a  small  chase  has  to  be  made  in 
each  stile,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines 
from  G  to  M.  When  the  pivots  are  screwed 
on  to  the  stiles,  then  the  chases  have  to  be 
made  in  the  frame.  In  order  that  the  head 
of  the  sash  shall  not  bind  as  it  is  opened,  the 
head  should  be  prepared  a  little  out  of  the 
square,  as  illustrated. 

Circle = on  =  Circle  Sashes  and  Frames. 

Fig.  1510  represents  a  horizontal  section 
(looking  up)  showing  the  soffit  of  arch,  sash, 


lower  half  of  each  outside  Hning  must  be 
movable,  so  that  the  sashes  may  be  placed 
in  position  from  the  outside.  The  sashes 
are  therefore  troublesome  to  hang,  and 


It 

1 


frame,  linings,  etc.,  and  Fig.  1511  represents 
a  part  outside  and  part  inside  elevation  of  an 
upper  portion  of  an  opening,  with  a  cased 
frame  and  double-hung  sashes,  for  a  window 
which  is  semicircular  in  elevation  and  circu- 
lar on  plan.  This  is  commonly  known 
as  circle-on-circle  work.  Sometimes  frames 
of  this  description  are  made  with  the  faces 
of  their  pulley  stiles  radiating  as  shown 
by  the  hues  a  and  b  (Fig.  1509).  When 
this  method  is  adopted,  the  sashes  cannot 
be  inserted  into  their  positions  from  the 
inside.    The    projecting    portion    of  the 


Fig.  1508.— Vertical 
Section  of  a  Solid 
Frame  with  Sash 
or  Casement  hung 
on  Pivots, 


the  renewal  of  sash  Hues  is  difficult.  The 
most  common  method  of  constructing  these 
sashes  is  illustrated  at  Figs.  1510  and  1511, 
which  show  the  geometrical  setting  out  for 
obtaining  moulds,  bevels,  etc.,  for  the  head 
of  the  frame  and  the  head  of  the  sash.  The 
outer  arris  of  the  soffit  of  the  arch  is  a 
semicircle  (a  b,  Fig.  1511),  and  therefore 


464 


CARPENTHY  AND  JOINERY. 


the  inner  arris  becomes  elliptical,  as  shown 
by  c  B  (Fig.  1511).  On  X  Y  (Fig.  1513) 
set  up  the  elevation  of  the  curve  c'  b",  the 
same  as  c  b  (Fig.  1511).    This  is  the  line 


between  the  head  and  the  pulley  stile. 
Mark  off  any  convenient  points  on  c\  b', 
as  m',  n',  o',  p'  (Fig.  1513).  Project  these 
down  to  the  plan  (Fig.  1514),  giving  the 


Fig.  1510. — Horizontal  Section  of 
Fig.  1511. 


Fig.  1509.— Plan  of  Circle-on-Circle 
Sash  Frame,  with  Radiating  Pulley 
Stiles. 

elevation  of  the  frame,  and  also  the  top 
edge  of  the  sash.  Projecting  down,  draw 
the  half  plan  of  soffit  shown  by  Fig.  1514. 
The  thickness  of  the  head  may  be  drawn 
in  as  shown  by  the  lines  t>\  e',  f\  g\ 
The  breadth  of  the  sash  may  also  be  drawn 
in,  as  indicated  by  k'  l'  ;  also  the  connection 


plans  of  the  generators  of  the  soffit  c,  M, 
N,  o,  p,  B.  The  soffit  mould  can  now  be 
obtained.  At  right  angles  to  the  projector 
Q  c',  draw  a  line  q  s  (Fig.  1515),  and  along 
it  mark  off  q,  5,  6,  7,  8 — respectively  &,  m', 
n',  o',  p',  b'  (Fig.  1513).  Then,  projecting 
at  right  angles  from  the  points  on  the 


WINDOW    SASHES   AND  CASEMENTS. 


465 


line  Q  s  (Fig.  1515),  and  then  from  m,  n,  o,  p, 
and  B  (Fig.  1514),  parallel  to  q  s,  the  points 
M,  N,  o,  P,  and  B  (Fig.  1515)  are  obtained. 
Through  these  intersections  the  curve  may 
be  drawn  in  as  shown.  The  soffit  mould 
may  be  completed  by  obtaining  points 
and  drawing  the  curve  Q  T,  and  also  for 
the  head  of  sash  by  u  v. 

Face  Moulds  for  Head  of  Frame.— For 
the  face  mould  for  the  head  of  the  frame, 
join  the  points  q  r  in  plan  ;  and  where 
the  plans  of  the  generators  M,  N,  O,  P, 
and  B  cross  this  line,  as  in  points  1,  2,  3,  4,  r, 
draw  ordinates  at  right  angles  to  Q  R,  making 
these  the  same  lengths  as  the  ordinates 
m",  n',  o",  p',  and  b'  in  elevation  (Fig.  1513). 
Then  the  curve  may  be  drawn  in. 

Face  Moulds  for  Head  of  Sash. — It  is 
here  assumed  that  the  stiles  of  the  upper 
sash  will  continue  part  of  the  way  into 
the  head,  and  then  there  will  be  a  joint 
as  shown  at  w  (Fig.  1513).  There  will  be 
then  a  crown  joint  as  represented  at  \J . 
By  projecting  down  from  w,  to  the  tangent 
line  drawn  from  c,  and  also  from  Q,  and 


Fig.  1515. 

Figs.  1513  to  1515.— 
Geometrical  Setting  Out. 


drawing  ordinates  at  right  angles  to 
tangent  hue  and  making  them  equal 
length  to  the  corresponding  ones  in  eleva- 
tion (Fig.  1513),  the  face  mould  from  the 
springing  to  the  joint  w  can  be  drawn 
as  shown  at  A  (Fig.  1514).  From  the  face 
mould  shown  at  B  (Fig.  1514),  draw  the 
tangent  Hue  10.  Then  where  the  plans 
of  the  generators  meet  this  line,  project 
up  ordinates,  and  then  the  face  mould  b 
can  be  obtained  as  previously  explained, 
the  joints  being  shown  at  c  W  and  b". 

Preparing  the  Head. — Probably  the  most 
satisfactory  way  of  making  the  head  of 
the  sash  frame  is  to  prepare  it  in  two  pieces 
out  of  the  sohd,  with  a  joint  at  the  crown, 
held  together  by  one  or  two  handrail 
screws,  and  fitting  into  laps  made  into  the 
pulley  stiles  as  illustrated  at  Fig.  1517. 
At  Fig.  1516,  half  the  plan  of  the  soffit 
is  represented  by  dotted  curved  lines, 
and  the  rhomboid  a,  b,  c,  d  enclosing  it 

20* 


shows  the  thickness  of  the  plank  required. 
Projected  above  are  shown  the  surface 
of  the  plank  and  the  application  of  the  face 
mould.  By  cutting  square  through  the  plank 
and  making  the  surface  l  m  horizontal, 
the  bevel  can.  be  applied  as  represented 
at  B  c  in  plan.  By  cutting  square  through 
and  level  at  n  f,  the  bevel  can  be  apphed, 
and  then  the  face  mould  can  be  used  for 
marking  the  other  surfaces  of  the  plank 


Fig.  1513. 


Fisr.  1514. 


as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  f.  Assuming 
that  the  two  pieces  to  form  the  head  have 
been  sawn  out,  and  the  soffit  planed  true 
to  the  face-mould  lines,  the  joints  made, 
and  the  head  fitted  and  screwed  to  the 
pulley  stiles  as  shown  at  Fig.  1517,  the 
soffit  mould  can  be  applied  and  the  soffit 
lined  out  as  illustrated.  In  order  to  keep 
the  pulley  stiles  equidistant  from  each 
other  until  the  linings  are  fixed,  the 
curved  stretcher  should  be  temporarily 
fixed  to  the  head  of  the  stiles  as  represented 
at  Fig.  1517.  If  the  sill  has  been  prepared 
to  the  proper  curve  when  the  superfluous 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


wood  is  planed  ofi  the  head,  a  long 
straightedge  should  fit  on  the  sill,  stretcher, 
and  head,  in  all  positions  such  that  it  is 
parallel  to  the  pulley  stiles. 

Inside  and  Outside  Linings. — In  pre- 
paring these,  it  will  involve  a  Httle  more 


Fig.  1516.— Application  of  Bevel  and 
Face  Mould  for  Head  of  Frame. 


to  the  Hues.  Then  the  pieces  should  be 
accurately  jointed,  tongued,  glued,  and 
blocked  in  position,  and  the  surface  of 
the  inside  lining  smoothed  off  so  as  to  fit 
a  straightedge  appUed  to  the  sill  and  the 
lining,  as  explained  in  connection  with 
Fig.  1517.  For  the  outside  lining,  only  a 
little  more  than  the  seen  margin  need  be 
cleaned  off,  if  it  is  to  fit  against  brickwork ; 
but  in  the  case  of  fitting  against  masonry, 
a  fair  amount  of  accuracy  would  be  necessary 
in  cleaning  off.  The  edge  of  the  outside 
lining  must  be  worked  so  as  to  project 
the  proper  distance  from  the  soffit,  and 
then  moulded,  if  moulding  is  shown  and 
specified ;  the  edge  of  the  inside  lining, 
of   course,    finishing   flush.    The  parting 


Fig.  1517.— Head  of  Frame 
Jointed  and  Fixed  to  Pulley 
Stiles,     and     Soffit  Mould 


Applied. 


labour,  but  will  make  a  much  more  satis- 
factory job,  if  the  joint,  instead  of  being 
at  the  springing,  is  made  some  httle  dis- 
tance above  it,  as  illustrated  at  Fig.  1518. 
This  will  keep  the  frame  more  rigid,  and 
the  pulley  stiles  parallel  to  each  other. 
So  as  not  to  have  the  grain  of  the  other 
parts  of  the  head  linings  too  short,  it  will 
be  necessary  for  them  to  be  in  two  pieces. 
It  will  be  found  the  simplest  plan  to  have 
the  stuff  thick  enough  to  work  the  inside 
surface  to  fit  the  head,  and  from  this  to 
gauge  full  for  the  outside,  and  rough  off 


Fig.    1518.— View 
from  Outside  of  a 
Portion  of  Head 
of  Frame. 


bead  will  have  to  be  in  three  or  four  pieces, 
and  is  cut  off  a  thin  board  to  the  proper 
curve,  and  may  be  bent  sideways  into  the 
plough  groove,  being  then  glued  in  position. 

Preparing  the  Head  of  Sash. — By  refer- 
ence to  the  plan  Fig.  1509  and  the  enlarged 
detail  Fig.  1512,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
stiles  are  not  square  in  section,  but  these 
of  course  would  be  worked  to  a  bevel  set 
to  the  angle  u,  c,  N  (Fig.  1514).  By  refer- 
ence to  Fig.  1513,  it  will  be  seen  that  part 
of  the  bead  and  a  straight  stile  are  formed 
in  one  ;  and  the  face  mould  for  the  curved 


WINDOW    SASHES   AND  CASEMENTS. 


467 


part  is  shown  at  a  (Fig.  1514).  The  face 
mould  is  applied  to  each  side  of  the  plank 
in  a  similar  manner  to  that  explained  for 
the  head  of  the  frame  (Fig.  1516).  It  will  be 
seen  that  a  portion  of  the  head  w  to  1' 
(Fig.  1513)  is  shown  in  the  plan  (Fig.  1514) 
as  enclosed  by  a  parallelogram,  which 
shows  the  thickness  of  the  stuff  required. 
The  face  mould  is  applied  to  each  side  of 
the  stuff  by  using  a  bevel  set  to  the  angle 
shown  at  b  (Fig.  1514).  The  next  process 
is  to  true  up  the  top  edges,  apply  the  falling 
mould  plane  nearly  to  the  lines,  and  then 
fit  each  piece  to  the  frame  in  its  proper 
position,  when  the  joints  should  be  made 
and  bolted  together.  The  meeting  rail  is 
of  course  of  the  curve  shown  in  plan,  but 
in  other  respects  it  is  dovetailed  to  the 
stiles  as  explained  for  previous  examples. 
If  all  fits  in  square,  the  next  thing  will  be 
to  mould  and  rebate  the  head  and  stiles. 
As  the  section  of  the  moulding  varies 
round  the  head,  it  should  be  formed  by 
small  rebate  planes  and  hollows  of  compass 
pattern. 

Guard  Beads. — Up  the  sides,  these  are 
of  the  ordinary  pattern,  the  edge  of  the 
sash  being  planed  off  so  that  the  joint 
between  it  and  the  guard  bead  is  square 
to  the  pulley  stile,  as  will  be  seen  by  refer- 


ence to  Fig.  1512.  The  guard  bead  to 
the  soffit  may  be  in  sections  worked  out 
of  the  solid,  which  will  be  found  the  easier 
method  ;  but,  alternatively,  this  could  be 
bent  in  a  square  state,  and  moulded  after- 
wards ;  but  this  method  of  course  would 
be  more  expensive,  and  would  involve  the 
construction  of  a  special  cylinder  on  which 
to  bend  it.  Fig.  1518  is  a  conventional 
view  of  a  portion  of  the  head  of  the  frame 
from  the  outside.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  back  of  the  splay  lining  is  represented 
as  formed  of  a  veneer  with  staves  jointed 
and  glued  at  the  back.  The  development 
and  construction  of  this  will  be  treated 
of  in  a  subsequent  section.  Of  course 
there  are  other  ways  of  constructing  the 
frame,  such  as  building  it  up  in  three 
thicknesses,  the  middle  thickness  forming 
the  parting  bead  ;  but  as  the  head  would 
practically  be  formed  of  two  separate 
parts  extra,  twice  the  amount  of  setting 
out  would  be  necessary,  and  therefore, 
though  a  little  stuff  might  be  saved,  a 
greater  expenditure  of  time  would  be  in- 
volved. In  superior  poUshed  work,  the 
head  would  be  constructed  of  a  veneer  and 
staves  at  the  back.  In  this  case,  of  course 
a  special  cylinder  would  have  to  be  made 
on  which  to  bend  and  block  the  veneer. 


MOULDINGS:  WORKING  AND  SETTING  THEM  OUT. 


Introduction. — A  moulding  is  a  curved  sur-  suitability  of  design,  are,  that  its  surfaces 
face  whose  section  is  continuous.  The  shall  be  perfectly  regular  and  smooth,  its 
essentials  of  a  good  moulding,  apart  from     edges  sharp,  and  its  curves  flowing  and 


Fig.  1542.  Fig.  1539 


Fig.  1519. — Parting  Bead.  Fig.  1520. — Quirked  Bead.  Fig.  1521. — Angle  or  Returned  Bead  (when 
of  Large  Section,  generally  known  as  a  Staff  Bead).  Fig.  1522. — Section  of  Bead  or  Round 
frequently  Fixed  as  a  Staff  Bead.  Fig.  1523.— Staff  or  Angle  Bead.  Fig.  1524.— Cavetto 
Quirked  Ogee  and  Bead  Architrave.  Fig.  1525. — Astragal  and  Fillets.  Fig.  1526. — Cyma 
Recta,  or  Reverse  Ogee,  with  Fillet  and  Ogee  Cornice  Moulding.  Fig.  1527. — Quirked  Grecian 
Ogee  Panel  Moulding.  Fig.  1528. — Quirked  Ogee  and  Bead  Moulding.  Fig.  1529. — Quirked 
Ovolo  and  Fillet.  Fig.  1530. — Quirked  Ovolo  and  Bead.  Fig.  1531.— Ordinary  or  Grecian 
Ovolo.  Fig.  1532. — Roman  Ovolo.  Fig.  1533. — Lamb's  Tongue.  Fig.  1534. — Torus.  Fig. 
1535. — Double  Torus.  Fig.  1536. — Grecian  Ogee  Base  or  Architrave  Moulding.  Fig.  1537. — 
Nosing.  Fig.  1538. — Scotia.  Fig.  1539. — Double  Face  Architrave.  Fig.  1540. — Bolection. 
Figs.  1541  and  1542.— "  Thumb." 


468 


MOULDINGS  :    WORKING    AND    SETTING    THEM    OUT.  469 


without  perceptible  break.  In  the  hand 
manufacture  of  mouldings,  the  above  re- 
quirements are  obtained  by  the  employ- 
ment of  planes  and  routers  of  suitable  con- 
tour, and  by  the  careful  cleaning  off  of  the 
surfaces  with  glasspaper,  wound  round 
rubbers  of  wood  or  cork.  Hand  manufacture 
has  now  given  place  largely  to  machine,  work, 
the  vertical  spindle  moulding  machine  pro- 
ducing mouldings  cheaply  and  well. 

Varieties  of  Common  Moulding-s. 

Common  mouldings  used  in  joinery  in- 
clude those  shown  on  p.  468.  It  may  be 
said  that  bead  is  a  general  term  applied  to 
small  mouldings  of  circular  section.  Quirked 
bead  is  a  small  moulding  semicircular  in 


A 


Fig.  1545.  fig.  1546.  Fig.  1547. 

Figs.  1543  to  1546.— Beads.       Fig.  1547.— Reedin 
Figs.  1550  and  1551.— Cu 


in  Figs.  1543  to  1545.  Bead  planes  are  made 
in  sets  of  nine,  from  J  in.  to  1  in.,  increasing 
in  size  by  yV  to  J  in.,  and  thereafter 

by  J  in.  The  better  makes  of  these  tools 
have  the  working  faces  in  boxwood,  the 
body  of  the  plane  being  in  beech,  and  the 
smaller  sizes  are  "  slipped  " — that  is,  one 
side  of  the  plane  is  rebated,  and  a  loose  slip 
fitted  in  and  secured  with  screws,  the  object 
being  to  enable  the  tool  to  be  worked  down 
into  a  rebate  or  over  a  projecting  surface, 
such  as  the  bead  on  the  edge  of  the  bottom 
moulding  shown  in  Fig.  1546.  Figs.  69  and 
70  on  p.  15  are  end  views  of  the  stocks  of 
a  pair  of  hollows  and  rounds,  with  sections 
of  the  mouldings  produced  by  them.  These 
are  made  in  sets  of  nine  pairs,  their  curves 


Fig.  1548.       Fig.  1549. 


Fig.  1551. 

Plane.  Figs.  1548  and  1549.— Thumb  Hollow. 
3d  Thumb  Rebate  Plane. 


section,  stuck  level  with  a  surface,  and 
separated  from  it  by  a  groove  known  as  a 
quirk  (see  Fig.  1520).  Return  bead  and 
staff  bead  have  quirks  on  adjacent  surfaces, 
generally  meeting  at  right  angles  (see  Figs. 
1521  and  1523),  but  occasionally  at  obtuse 
and  acute  angles.  The  terms  return  bead 
and  staff  bead  generally  include  all  beads 
that  are  at  an  angle  ;  but  beads  of  small 
section  are  often  distinguished  as  return 
beads,  and  those  of  larger  section  as  staff 
beads.  In  the  North  of  England  the  inside 
f -in.  bead  to  sash  frames  ig  frequently  called 
a  staff  bead,  whereas  in  London  and  the 
South  of  England  it  is  generally  known  as 
an  inside  bead  or  guard  bead. 

Planes  for  Straight  Moulding-. 

Figs.  66  to  68  on  p.  14  show  a  bead  plane  and 
its  cutter  or  "  iron,"  a  typical  example  of  a 
tool  for  producing  such  beads  as  are  shown 


being  portions  of  circles  whose  radii  increase 
by  J  in.  Figs.  71  and  72  on  p.  15  are  sash 
moulding  planes,  named  respectively  ovolo 
and  lamb's-tongue  ;  such  planes  are  made 
in  pairs,  one  to  follow  the  other,  and  in  three 
sizes,  namely,  J  in.,  f  in.,  and  |  in.,  these  being 
the  distances  the  moulding  works  on  the 
edge  of  the  stuff,  the  respective  depths  being 
j\  in.,  i  in.,  and  yV  in.  Fig.  73,  p.  15,  is  a 
cabinet-maker's  ogee  moulding  plane,  which 
may  be  had  in  four  sizes,  from  f  in.  to  1 J  in. 
These,  in  common  with  most  moulding 
planes,  require  holding  at  an  angle  of  about 
20°  with  the  side  of  the  stuff  being  worked, 
the  line  shown  on  the  fore  end  of  the  plane 
being  kept  vertical,  or  in  line  with  the  sur- 
face, against  which  the  fence  of  the  plane 
works.  Beads,  on  the  contrary,  are  always 
held  upright  when  being  worked.  Fig.  1547 
is  a  reeding  plane,  which  may  be  made  for 
two,  three,  and  five  reeds,  the  one  illustrated 


470 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


being  a  three-reed  plane.  They  are  usually 
slipped  similarly  to  the  beads,  and  for  the 
same  reasons,  and  in  some  the  fence  is  mov- 
able so  that  the  margin  may  be  varied. 
Fluting  planes,  the  converse  of  these,  are 
also  made,  but  are  not  much  used,  as  the 
work  can  be  done  equally  well  with  rounds. 
The  foregoing  are  the  principal  planes  for 
working  straight  mouldings,  but  there  are 


Fig.  1552.  Fig.  1553.     Fig.  1554. 

Figs.  1552  to  1554. — Scratch  Tool  and  Scratches. 

in  addition  a  few  special  moulding  planes 
used  by  joiners,  such  as  shop-front  lamb's- 
tongue,  stair-nosing,  and  Scotia  planes  ; 
these,  however,  are  not  hkely  to  be  of 
general  service. 

Tools  for  Shaped  Mouldingfs. 

Thumb  Hollows  and  Rounds. — Figs.  1548 
and  1549  show  respectively  an  end  and  a  side 
view  of  a  thumb  hollow  for  working  rounds 
on  curved  work,  and  a  complete  set  can  be 
had  matching  the  set  of  ordinary  hollows, 
and  also  rounds  ;  however,  with  a  little 
ingenuity  in  their  use,  three  or  four  can  be 
made  to  work  almost  every  imaginable  curve. 
They  are  generally  made  of  some  very  hard 
wood,  such  as  box,  ebony,  and  lignum  vitse, 
and  are  from  2  in.  to  4  in.  long,  2  in.  deep, 
and  from  f  in.  to  f  in.  thick.  The  irons 
may  be  purchased  as  blanks  from  the  tool- 
dealers,  or  may  be  easily  made  from  a  piece 
of  sheet  steel. 

Curved  Thumb  Rebate  Plane.— Figs.  1550 
and  1551  are  side  and  plan  views  of  a  curved 
thumb  rebate  plane  ;  these  planes  are  made 
to  various  sweeps  and  thicknesses,  and  are 
very  useful  in  working  rebates  and  squares 
on  curved  work.  These  rebates  are  also 
made  with  circular  soles,  as  in  Fig.  1549. 
The  thumb  planes  above  mentioned  would 
be  indispensable  for  making  work  of  double 
curvature,   a  good  example  of  which  is 


given  at  Figs.  1283  and  1286,  pp.  394  and 
395. 

Scratch  Tools.— Scratch  tools  (Fig.  1552) 
are  much  used  by  wood-workers  and  joiners 
for  working  small  mouldings  on  sweep  work, 
and  occasionally  on  straight  work  also.  They 
consist  of  small  pieces  of  hardwood  sunk  at 
one  end,  to  form  a  fence,  and  with  a  slot  or 
saw-kerf  to  receive  the  cutter  or  scratch, 
which  is  gripped  tightly  in  the  slot  by  means 
of  a  wood  screw  turned  into  the  end  of  the 
stock.  The  scratch  is  a  piece  of  thin  hard 
steel  filed  up  to  an  exact  reverse  of  the 
moulding  it  is  desired  to  produce.  It  is 
then  rubbed  square  across  with  an  oilstone 
slip  to  remove  the  file  marks,  and  finally 
the  edge  is  turned  with  a  bradawl  or 
scraper  —  that  is,  the  bradawl  is  rubbed 
very  firmly  along  the  edge  until  a  sharp 
burr  is  produced  on  each  side  ;  this  burr 
forms  the  cutting  edge,  and  is,  of  course, 
soon  worn  away,  especially  on  hard  wood. 
The  proper  formation  of  this  burr  is  the 
secret  of  producing  good  work  with  the 
scratch.  Figs.  1553  and  1554  are  views  of 
two  steel  scratches,  the  one  shown  in  the 
stock  in  Fig.  1552  being  a  sash  ovolo.  In 
using  the  scratch,  the  cutter  should  not  be 
projected  the  full  depth  at  first,  but  after 
some  of  the  surplus  wood  has  been  removed 
it  is  pushed  out  to  its  proper  projection,  the 


•  Fig.  1555. 


Fig.  1556. 
Figs.  1555  and  1556. — Scratch  Tools. 


correct  amount  being  shown  by  a  file  mark 
on  the  face.  As  much  as  possible  of  the 
surplus  wood  should  be  removed  with 
gouge,  chisel,  or  plane,  as  may  be  most 
convenient,  and  the  scratch  is  then  rubbed 
backwards  and  forwards  a  few  inches  at  a 
time  until  it  is  down,  a  final  rub  continu- 
ously through  the  length  being  given  with  a 


MOULDINGS  :    WORKING    AND    SETTING    THEM  OUT. 


471 


sharp  scratch.  Figs.  1555  and  1556  show  re- 
spectively a  side  and  an  under-edge  view  of 
a  scratch  tool  as  suppHed  by  tool-dealers. 
This  is  about  8  in.  long,  and  is  made  of  beech, 
with  turned  handles  and  a  boxwood  mov- 
able fence,  one  face  being  square,  the  other 
round  ;  into  the  fence  a  slotted  brass  plate 
is  let,  through  which  a  screw  slides,  giving 
about  1  in.  adjustment,  and  more  can  be 
obtained  by  re-entering  the  screw.  The  fence 
is  also  slotted  slightly  to  pass  over  the  cutter, 
which  prevents  side  movement  when  work- 
ing, the  cutter  being  secured  by  a  set  screw 


Fig.  1557. — Quirk  Routers. 


B  A 


this  part  forms  a  cutter  for  removing  the 
core.  The  circular  hole  inside  the  cutting 
edges  is  to  receive  the  dust  or  shaving 
removed  in  the  stroke,  and  the  tool  requires 
repeated  lifting  from  the  cut  to  clear  this 
throat.  Figs.  1561  and  1562  illustrate  a 
home-made  quirk  router  that  will  in  many 
cases  prove  quite  as  serviceable  as  the  more 
elaborate  shop-made  article.  A  block  of 
hardwood,  about  2  in.  long  by  f  in.  square, 
is  grooved  across  one  face  (see  Figs.  1561 
and  1562)  to  receive  the  cutter,  which  should 
fit  tightly.  This  is  a  piece  of  saw  blade,  yo 
in.  thick.  If  in.  long,  and  f  in.  wide,  with  a 
f-in.  slot  in  it ;  a  stout  J-in.  wood  screw 
passing  through  this  slot  secures  the  cutter 
at  any  height  desired.  A  movable  fence, 
made  of  a  slip  of  hardwood  f  in.  by  f  in. 


Fig. 

1558. 


Fig.  1559 


Fig.  1562. 


Fig.  1563. 


Figs.  1558  to  1560.— Cutter.        Figs.  1561  and  1562.— Quirk  Router.        Fig.  1563.— Cutting  Gauge, 


at  the  side.  This  tool  is  useful  on  larger 
mouldings,  and  is  shown  with  a  two -reed 
scratch  in  it. 

Quirk  Routers. — Quirk  routers  (Fig.  1557) 
are  made  of  malleable  iron,  and  have  adjust- 
able fences  of  various  shapes,  with  a  pair  of 
clips  and  thumbscrew  for  holding  the  cutter. 
Three  views  of  the  latter,  to  a  larger  scale, 
are  given  in  Figs.  1558  to  1560.  This  tool 
is  used  primarily  for  cutting  quirks  for  beads 
and  other  mouldings,  but  is  also  very  handy 
for  sinking  grooves  in  any  curved  work 
where  a  plough  would  not  be  available  ;  it 
is  used  similarly  to  the  scratch  tool.  The 
cutter  (Fig.  1559)  is  made  of  sheet  steel,  from 
yV  in.  to  y\  in.  thick,  the  ends  forming 
parts  of  two  concentric  circles,  one  slightly 
larger  than  the  other.  The  larger  one  a, 
filed  to  a  V  section,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1560, 
forms  the  gauge  or  side  cutter  of  the  pro- 
posed groove,  and  must  always  be  on  the 
front  or  forward  side  of  the  tool,  but  the 
side  B  is  filed  square  to  a  chisel  edge,  and 


Fig.  1564.  Fig.  1565. 

Figs.  1564  and  1565.— Thumb  Mould. 

by  ^2 J  in.,  is  secured  to  the  stock  with  a 
couple  of  round-headed  screws,  which  pass 
through  two  small  slots  in  the  fence.  This 
proves  a  very  efficient  tool  for  inlaying 
strings  in  marqueterie  work. 

Cutting  Gauge. — This  tool  is  illustrated 
at  Fig.  1563,  and  is  used  for  cutting 
the  edges  of  the  various  members  of  a 
moulding,  more  especially  when  working 
them  across  the  grain,  the  object  being  to 
obtain  a  clean-cut  edge.  The  small  mov- 
able cutter  can  be  adjusted  to  various 
depths  and  taken  out  for  sharpening  on 
the  oilstone.  When  using  it,  the  flat 
face  of  the  cutter  must  always  be  turned 
towards  the  side  on  which  the  clean  edge- 
is  desired; 


472 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Working:  Thumb  Mould. 

To  work  a  thumb  mould  (Figs.  1564  and 
1565)  on  the  edge  of  a  table  or  sideboard  top, 
first  square  up  the  edges  to  the  required 
size,  then  with  the  cutting  gauge  set  to 
the  breadth  of  the  moulding,  gauge  a 
line  on  the  top  all  round.  Next  set  a 
plough  to  a  shaving  less  than  the  gauge 
mark  and  to  the  exact  depth  of  the  sinking 
required,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  in 


Fig.  1566.— Ogee  Panel  Mould. 
Fig.  1567.— Working  Ogee  Panel  Mould. 
Fig.  1568.— Working  Bolection  Mould. 
Fig.  1569.— Cornice  Mould. 
Fig.  1570. — Working  Cornice  Mould. 


Pig.  1565,  and  work  this  on  the  two  side 
edges  of  the  top.  Then  fix  a  straightedge 
to  the  gauge  line  across  the  end  by  means 
of  two  handscrews  or  clips,  and  run  in  a 
tenon  saw  to  the  requisite  depth.  Again  run 
in  the  saw  ;  then  the  plough  may  be  worked 
across  the  ends  to  remove  the  core  to  the 
proper  depth.  Chamfer  off  with  the  jack 
plane  as  indicated  by  A  b.  Fig.  1565,  and, 
selecting  two  hollows  of  suitable  size,  work 
the  larger  one  down  first.  Then  turn  the 
top  up  on  edge  and  finish  off  the  curve 


with  the  smaller  one.  The  side  moulds 
should  be  worked  first,  and  a  mitre  line 
drawn  on  each  end  with  a  mitre  template, 
the  end  moulds  being  then  worked  down  to 
this  fine,  as  the  shape  of  the  mould  cannot 
well  be  marked  on  the  moulded  edges. 

Working-  Ogee  Panel  Moulding-. 

In  Fig.  1566  the  dotted  outhne  represents 
the  end  of  the  board  on  the  edge  of  which 
the  moulding  is  to  be  stuck,  and  the  full 
line  is  the  shape  of  the  moulding  which 
should  be  marked  on  each  end  by  means  of 
a  pattern  template.  For  this  the  ends  of 
the  board  should  be  planed  and  rubbed 
over  with  chalk,  so  that  the  pencil  line 
shall  show  clearer.  Having  shot  the  edge 
of  the  board  straight  and  square,  gauge  the 
edge  to  the  required  thickness  from  the  face, 
and  try  up  the  back.  Set  the  plough  with 
No.  1  iron  and  plough  the  grooves  as 
indicated  at  1,  2,  3,  and  4  (Fig.  1566)  to 
the  distance  on  of  the  sticking  as  shown 
at  1.  The  core  between  grooves  2  and 
3  can  be  removed  with  a  chisel  and 
levelled  with  a  rebate  plane,  when  the 
board  will  have  the  appearance  shown  in 
Fig.  1567.  Next  work  off  the  salient  angles 
of  the  core  in  a  series  of  chamfers  with  the 
rebate  plane  as  indicated  by  the  dotted 
lines,  and  with  a  suitable  round  work  out 
the  hollow  part  of  the  moulding.  A  re- 
verse of  the  template,  cut  out  of  card  or 
thin  wood,  is  useful  for  testing  the  depth. 
Begin  the  round  with  a  suitable  hollow. 
If  the  hollow  will  not  work  on  the  off  side 
quite  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  quirk, 
a  snipe-bill  plane  must  be  employed  to 
finish.  This  is  specially  for  working  in  the 
quirks  of  mouldings. 

Working  Bolection  Moulding. 

To  work  a  bolection  moulding  (Fig.  1546, 
p.  469),  a  piece  out  of  which  the  mould 
is  to  be  produced  should  be  planed  up 
accurately  to  size  all  round  first  and 
grooves  run  in  as  indicated  by  the  dotted 
lines  till  it  assumes  the  shape  of  Fig. 
1568.  Work  the  return  bead  on  the  front 
edge,  removing  the  side  slip  for  that  pur- 
pose. Then  the  upper  round  or  astragal 
should  be  worked,  and  two  thin  marking 
slips  prepared  exactly  the  width  of  the  two 


MOULDINGS  :    WORKING   AND    SETTING    THEM    OUT.  473 


side  flats  or  "  fillets."  These  are  to  be 
drawn  along  the  sides  of  the  astragal  as  a 
guide  to  the  marking  knife  to  cut  in  the 
edges  of  the  hollows,  which  are  thereafter 
worked  with  suitable  rounds. 

Working-  Cornice  Moulding-. 

Fig.  1569  is  a  section  of  a  cornice  mould 
set  up  in  the  position  it  would  occupy  when 
fixed,  the  dotted  outline  indicating  the 
necessary  size  of  the  piece  required  to  pro- 
duce it ;  this  piece  should  be  planed  true 


Fig.  1572. 


Fig.  1571. — Elevation  of  Circular  Cornice. 
Fig.  1572. — Plan  of  Circular  Cornice. 

on  the  back  or  worse  side,  and  the  edges 
shot  to  the  width  as  shown.  Then  the 
outline  having  been  marked  on  each  end 
as  shown  by  the  full  iines,  gauge  fines 
should  be  run  on  from  the  points  a,  b,  and 
c,  and  the  piece  planed  off  to  these  bevels, 
which  should  be  at  right  angles  or  square 
to  each  other.  Then  the  rebate  for  the 
cover  board  should  be  formed  by  ploughing 
a  groove,  and  other  grooves  are  then  to  be 
run  in  to  form  the  fillets  as  shown  in  Fig. 
1570.  The  piece  is  here  shown  supported 
by  two  strips  b  nailed  to  the  bench  ;  it  will, 


of  course,  require  turning  round  when  being 
ploughed  from  the  edge  a  (Fig.  1569).  The 
core  is  removed  with  gouges,  and  preliminary 
rebates  are  formed  as  guides  for  the  depth 
of  the  stickings,  as  described  previously 
for  the  ogee  moulding. 

Working  Circular  Cornice  Moulding. 

Figs.  1571  and  1572  are  the  elevation  and 
inverted  plan  of  a  circular  corner  to  the 
cornice  shown  in  section  at  Fig.  1569.  The 
rectangle  enclosed  by  the  lines  a  b  and  c  d 
(Fig.  1571)  shows  the  size  of  the  block  re- 
quired. Two  templates  will  be  necessary, 
one  to  the  plan  curves  e  h  and  /  g  (Fig.  1572), 


Fig.  1574. 
Fig.  1573. — Section  of  Raised  Panel. 
Fig.  1574.— Plan  of  Raised  Panel. 

and  one  as  shown  in  Fig.  1569.  The  joints 
e  f  and  g  h  are  made  first,  square  with  each 
other  and  the  top  surface  ;  then  the  plan 
template  is  applied  at  the  top  and  bottom 
and  the  outlines  are  marked,  the  front  and 
back  edges  of  the  piece  being  worked  off 
with  chisel  and  gouges,  or  cut  with  a  bow- 
saw and  finished  with  a  spokeshave.  The 
section  template  is  next  applied  on  each 
joint,  the  edge  b  c  (Fig.  1569)  being  kept 
flush  with  the  front,  and  the  outline  marked  ; 
pencil  lines  are  then  gauged  round  from  the 
front  on  the  bottom  surface  of  the  block 
from  all  the  members  of  the  moulding,  as 
indicated  by  the  lines  numbered  1  to  6  in 
Fig.  1572,  the  numbered  points  in  Fig.  1571 


474 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


corresponding.  The  block  is  now  fixed  on 
the  bench,  and  saw-cuts  are  run  in  tangent 
to  the  various  curves,  and  are  met  by  cor- 
responding cuts  from  the  face  of  the  block, 
as  indicated  by  the  double  lines.  These 
are  the  commencements  of  a  series  of  rebates 
to  be  finished  with  chisels  and  rebate  planes, 
and  they  must  be  carefully  worked  one  after 
the  other,  commencing  with  the  member 
marked  6  and  keeping  the  margins  equal 
all  round.  After  the  rebates  are  finished, 
the  moulds  are  worked  with  thumb  hollows 
and  rounds.  To  prevent  the  edges  at  the 
joints  breaking  out,  the  outlines  should  be 


Fiof.  1576. 
Fig.  1575.— Rubbers  for  Beads. 
Fig.  1576.— Holding  Glasspaper  on  Rubber. 
Fig.  1577.— Cork-faced  Rubber. 


carefully  cut  in  for  about  J  in.  with  suit- 
able gouges  or  chisels,  from  the  outside  to- 
wards the  middle,  and  in  working  the  planes 
take  care  not  to  go  below  this  cut  portion, 
the  cleaning  off  being  left  until  the  piece  is 
glue- jointed  and  dowelled  to  the  straight 
portions  of  the  moulding. 

Working  Raised  Panel. 

Figs.  1573  and  1574  are  the  section  and 
plan  of  a  sunk,  raised,  and  fielded  panel. 
It  is  prepared  by  trying  up  the  back  and 
gauging  to  thickness,  and  then  cutting  and 
squaring  off  to  the  finished  size,  as  indicated 
by  the  outiine  in  Fig.  1573.  Next  the  sinking 
a  is  gauged  all  round  the  edges  from  the 


face,  and  also  the  thickness  of  the  tongue  6, 
which  is  gauged  from  the  back.  The  lines 
cc  (Fig.  1574)  are  then  gauged  in  with  the 
cutting  gauge,  working  from  the  edges  of 
the  panel.  A  plough  groove  is  run  along 
the  sides,  close  to  the  gauge  lines,  to  the 
required  depth  of  the  sinking,  and  similar 
grooves  are  cut  across  the  grain  with  the 
tenon  saw,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted 
lines  in  Fig.  1574,  the  core  being  removed 
with  a  small  chisel  and  the  plough  run  across 
to  regulate  the  depth.  The  panel  is  now 
turned  up  on  edge  in  the  bench-screw,  back 
outwards,  and  a  plough  groove  h  (Fig.  1573) 
run  around  the  edges  to  a  depth  slightly 
under  the  amount  by  which  the  tongue  will 
enter  the  groove  in  the  framing.  Next 
work  out  the  rebate  a  all  round,  and  with 
a  shoulder  plane  or  a  rebate  plane  set  very 
fine  and  laid  flat,  go  carefully  around  the 
sides  of  the  sinking,  working  off  clean  and 
square  to  the  gauge  fines.  Then  chip  away 
the  core  between  the  top  and  bottom  of  the 
chamfer,  and  true  up  with  the  shoulder 
plane.  The  cross  or  end  grain  should  be 
worked  first,  and  a  mitre  line  drawn  at  each 
angle,  when  the  sides  can  be  worked  off  to 
these  lines,  which  will  produce  correct  mitres. 

Cleaning^  Up  Mouldings. 

Mouldings  are  cleaned  up  by  rubbing  the 
surface  with  glasspaper  of  different  degrees 
of  fineness,  applied  to  the  various  members 
of  the  moulding  by  means  of  suitably  shaped 
rubbers  of  soft  wood  or  cork  ;  the  latter  is 
the  better  material,  as  it  does  not  get 
heated  so  readily  with  the  friction.  This 
heating  melts  the  glue  with  which  the  glass 
is  attached  to  the  paper,  and  causes  it  to 
come  to  the  surface,  where  it  adheres  to 
the  dust  produced  in  rubbing,  quickly 
clogging  the  paper  and  rendering  it  use^.ess. 
The  rubber  must  be  made  to  fit  the  curves 
of  the  moulding  exactly,  and  in  the  case  of 
a  large  moulding  the  rubbers  may  fit  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  surface  ;  generally,  how- 
ever, quirks  and  flats  are  best  rubbed  with 
separate  rubbers,  as  in  Fig.  1575,  although, 
if  care  is  taken,  the  flats  on  a  small  moulding 
may  be  cleaned  up  with  the  rubber  used  for 
the  curved  parts,  as  shown  in  F.g.  1576. 
The  flat  parts  of  the  rubber  should,  how- 
ever, pass  well  beyond  the  arrises  of  the 


MOULDINGS  :    WORKING    AND    SETTING    THEM    OUT.  475 


fillets,  to  avoid  the  danger  of  the  glasspaper 
rising  on  the  edge  of  the  rubber  and  taking 
off  the  sharp  edge  of  the  moulding.  The 
paper  should  not  be  folded  double  on  the 
rubber,  and  must  be  pressed  very  tightly 
round  the  latter ;  it  should  also  not  be 
allowed  to  overhang  the  ends  of  the  rubber, 
but  should  be  kept  short.  Wood  rubbers 
are  shaped  with  hollows  and  rounds,  and 
are  usually  about  4  in.  long  by  2J  in.  wide. 
Cork  rubbers,  being  generally  made  from 
odd  pieces  of  cork  (bottle  corks),  are  of 
various  lengths  ;  they  are  sometimes  glued 
in  J-in.  slabs  to  wood  blocks  and  shaped 


ing  raises  the  grain  and  results  in  a  much 
smoother  finish. 

Fixing  and  Fitting^  Mouldings. 

Fig.  1578  is  a  sketch  of  a  small  door  show- 
ing the  method  of  inserting  a  planted  mould- 
ing ;  the  shorter  pieces  are  mitered  and  shot 
to  the  exact  length  between  the  stiles,  and 
the  longer  pieces  are  shot  rather  full  in 
length,  so  that  they  can  be  forced  in  with- 
out bruising  the  ends  when  the  other  pieces 
are  removed.  Having  fitted  each  piece 
separately,  try  each  mitre  to  see  that  the 
mouldings  meet  correctly,  which  they  should 


Fig.  1578.— Fitting  Mouldings. 


as  required  after  drying  as  shown  in  Fig. 
1577.  A  sharp  gouge  and  a  rat-tail  file 
are  useful  tools  for  roughly  shaping  cork  ; 
then  bed  a  piece  of  fine  glasspaper  round  the 
moulding,  and  rub  the  rubber  over  this, 
which  will  finish  it  accurately  to  shape. 
Oakey's  cabinet  glasspaper  should  be  used, 
and  is  made  in  several  degrees,  the  most 
useful  being  :  M2,  for  the  first  cut  in  large 
soft  wood  mouldings  ;  F2,  for  a  similar 
purpose  in  hard  wood  ;  IJ,  a  good  general 
paper  and  Suitable  as  a  first  cut  for  small 
mouldings,  and  a  second  cut  for  large  deal 
mouldings  ;  I,  a  fine  paper  to  finish  hard- 
wood mouldings  ;  and  0,  or  flour  paper, 
an  extremely  fine  cut,  only  used  when  a 
very  high  finish  is  desired.  In  cleaning  up 
hardwood  mouldings,  after  the  first  paper- 
ing up  is  finished,  slightly  damp  the  mould- 
ing with  hot  water,  and  when  this  has  dried, 
rub  down  with  the  finer  paper  ;  this  damp- 


do,  in  all  but  the  last  mitre,  if  the  lengths 
have  been  cut  off  consecutively.  The  last 
mitre,  joining  up  the  opposite  ends  of  the 
length,  will  probably  vary  sHghtiy  in  sec- 
tion, and  should  be  trimmed  before  being 
planted  in.  All  being  ready,  cut  four  little 
blocks  and  place  one  at  each  corner,  as 
shown  ;  then  insert  the  end  pieces  of  mould- 
ing, resting  them  on  the  blocks.  Next 
spring  in  the  side  pieces  by  pressing  the 
end  down  with  the  left  elbow,  pulHng  the 
middle  of  the  length  up  into  an  arch  with 
the  left  hand,  and  pressing  the  other  end 
down  into  place  with  the  right  hand.  When 
the  end  is  entered,  let  go  the  middle,  and  the 
piece  will  spring  in  straight,  bringing  the 
mitre  up  tight. 

Setting-  Out  Mouldings. 

Diminishing  Moulding. — The  following 
geometrical  method  will  be  found  both 


476 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


simple  and  effective,  both  for  diminishing 
and  enlarging  mouldings.  To  find  the 
section  of  a  moulding  smaller  than  that 
represented  at  A,  E,  D,  c  (Fig.  1579), 
draw  from  A  a  horizonta  line  a  g,  at  any 
convenient  distance,  produce  the  line  e  a 
to  any  convenient  point  H  ;  from  c  draw 
the  perpendicular  c  f,  and  then  take  any 
suitable  points  in  the  profile  of  the  mould- 
ing as  1,  2,  3,  and  4;  from  these  project 
horizontals  to  meet  c  f  in  5,  6,  7,  and  8. 
Then  projecting  down  from  points  2,  3, 


H  F  in  /,  draw  the  horizontal  /,  a,  which  cuts 
the  radiating  lines  in  h,  e,  g,  and  h;  then 
from  /'  mark  off  corresponding  distances 
as  shown  by  a\  b\  e\  g\  h\  and  raise  pro- 
jectors as  shown ;  then  from  the  point 
where  the  radiating  lines  from  g  cut  d,  f\  in 
5",  Q\  7\  S\  project  horizontally,  and  thus 
show  points  in  the  profile  of  the  moulding 
as  r,  r,  3^  4:\ 

Enlarging  Mouldings. — To  enlarge  the 
moulding  to  a  breadth  equal  to  G  M  and 
to  a  thickness  of  H  n,  on  the  vertical  fine 


Figs.  1579  and  1580.-- 
Diminishing    and  En- 
larging Mouldings. 


Fig.  1579. 


I  I '/  / 
'  ///  / 


L  


and  4,  we  obtain  9,  10,  and  11.  Now  from 
H  draw  radiating  lines  passing  through  points 
B,  9,  10,  11,  and  f,  also  from  G  draw  radiating 
fines  passing  through  points  5,  6,  7,  8,  and 
D.  At  G  set  up  a  perpendicular,  and  then 
make  G  k  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the 
moulding  required.  From  k  draw  a  hori- 
zontal line  cutting  g  D  in  cZ,  then  from  d 
draw  the  perpendicular  d  f.  Next  from 
H  draw  a  horizontal  fine  making  h  l  equal 
to  the  thickness  required,  then  from  l 
draw  a  line  parallel  to  H  A,  so  that  it  cuts 


G  M  mark  ofi  the  breadth,  project  a  hori- 
zontal to  cut  the  radiator  G  o  in  e'  ;  draw 
the  vertical  line  e'  p,  then  produce  the  other 
radiators  to  meet  the  line  as  shown.  Then 
project  horizontally  from  H,  and  on  H  N 
mark  off  the  given  thickness,  cutting  the 
radiating  line  h  r  in  s  ;  draw  the  hori- 
zontal s  T ;  produce  the  other  radiators  to 
meet  this  fine  as  shown.  From  p  (Fig. 
1580)  mark  off  distances  b,  9,  10,  11,  and 
F,  to  correspond  with  those  at  s  t  (Fig. 
1579) ;  projectors  raised  from  these 
points  will  determine  points  1"  to  in  the 
curve,  which  can  then  be  drawn  as  shown. 
By  p,  e',  f'  is  shown  the  profile  of  a  mould- 
ing which  is  much  broader  than  but  of  the 
same  thickness  as  the  original  moulding  a,  e, 
D,  the  setting  out  of  which  will  be  clearly 
understood  without  need  of  further  explana- 
tion. 

Raking  Mouldings  Round  External  Angle. 

— Fig.  1581  illustrates  the  process  of  obtain- 
ing the  sections  of  raking  mouldings  round 
the  external  angle  of  a  wall  which  is  square. 
In  this  case  the  returned  pieces  are  hori- 


MOULDINGS  :    WORKING    AND    SETTING    THEM    OUT.  477 


zontal.  The  raking  moulding  a  b  c  being 
given,  it  is  required  to  find  the  profiles  of 
the  mouldings  mitering  into  it.  Take  any 
number  of  points  in  the  section  given,  and 
project  two  lines  from  each,  one  to  the  back 
of  the  section  a  c,  and  another  parallel 
to  A  c  to  a  line  p  l  drawn  from  a  at  right 
angles  to  a  c  ;  a'  and  k"  q,"  are  the  eleva- 
tions of  the  faces  of  the  returning  walls. 
Take  any  point  p  in  a'  and  Q,"  a""  pro- 
duced, and  draw  p  l  at  right  angles  to  it, 
and  on  that  side  on  which  is  the  moulding. 


required  sections.  To  avoid  confusion  of 
lines  the  points  taken  should  be  numbered, 
the  lines  drawn  through  them,  and  the  points 
in  the  projection  lines  numbered  in  the  same 
way.  The  above  example  also  represents  the 
moulding  which  occurs  in  the  pediment. 

Raking  Mouldings  on  Internal  Angle. — 
Fig.  1582  illustrates  the  various  sections  of  a 
moulding  running  round  the  interior  angles 
of  a  wall.  It  also  shows  the  different  forms 
of  sash-bar  moulding  required  for  a  certain 
kind  of  lantern  light,  and  the  shape  of  the 


p  L  might  be  called  the  projection  line. 
It  is  required  to  transfer  the  points  on  it  to 
the  other  lines  p  l.  To  do  this  take  a  strip 
of  paper,  and,  placing  the  edge  against  the 
projection  line,  make  marks  on  it  over  the 
points.  The  strip  can  now  be  placed  against 
the  new  lines  and  the  several  points  marked 
off  from  it,  taking  care  that  p  is  over  A  and 
L  above  B.  Project  lines  from  the  points  in 
the  projection  lines,  parallel  to  the  backs 
of  the  mouldings  a'  c'  and  k"  &\  Draw 
also  lines,  to  meet  these,  through  the  points 
taken  on  the  given  profile,  and  parallel 
to  the  lines  a'  c'  and  a"  c'\  The  inter- 
sections of  these  lines  are  points  on  the 


angle  bar  in  a  shop  front,  a  B  is  the  section 
given  or  known.  Points  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  are 
taken  in  the  profile,  the  points  in  the  curved 
portions  being  taken  sufficiently  close  to 
admit  of  a  freehand  curve  being  drawn 
through  the  resulting  points.  The  process  is 
the  same  as  for  the  previous  example,  a'  b' 
and  a"'  b''  are  the  sections  of  the  mouldings 
mitering  into  the  raking  one,  which  are  hori- 
zontal. When  the  mouldings  on  both  faces 
of  the  wall  are  on  the  rake  or  at  an  angle, 
one  of  the  methods  illustrated  at  the  right 
of  the  figure  is  adopted.  In  one  case  the 
points  on  the  profile  are  projected  to  the 
back  hne  of  the  section,  and  hues  are  drawn 


478 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


from  these  at  the  angle  to  which  the  mould- 
ing is  to  be  fixed.  A  new  back  line  is  then 
drawn  across  these  lines  and  at  right  angles 
to  them.  A  Hne  is  now  drawn  from  one  of 
the  front  points,  say  a",  at  the  new  rake  of 
the  moulding.    By  drawing  the  projection 


responding  lines  drawn  through  the  projec- 
tion line. 

Raking  Moulding  intersecting  an  Obtuse 
Angle  with  a  Horizontal. — A    B,    c  (Fig. 

1583)  is  the  plan  of  the  faces  of  two  walls 
intersecting  at  B  at  an  obtuse  angle,  a  b 


4  F  A 


Figs.  1583  and  1584.— Raking 
Moulds    intersecting    at  an 
Obtuse  Angle  with  a  Hori- 
zontal. 


Fig.  1583. 


line  p  L,  and  lines  through  the  points  in  it, 
the  point  h!"  is  found.  Join  this  to  the  end 
of  the  new  back  1  ne,  and  draw  lines  parallel 
to  it  from  the  other  points  in  the  line.  The 
intersections  of  these  lines,  with  those 
drawn  through  the  Hne  p  l,  are  points  on 
the  new  section.  The  other  method,  which  is 
the  shorter  when  the  elevation  of  the  mitre 
(a"  b'')  has  been  drawn,  is  by  drawing  lines 
from  the  points  on  the  profile,  and  at  the 
rake  of  the  moulding  to  intersect  the  cor- 


being  a  level  moulding  and  b  c  a  raking 
moulding.  Parallel  to  b  c  draw  x  Y 
projecting  up  from  B  the  back  of  the  mitre, 
the  point  d  (Fig.  1584)  is  obtained  ;  draw 
the  inclination  of  the  moulding  as  shown 
by  D  E.    Draw  at  right  angles  to 

A  B  (Fig.  1583),  and  draw  the  section  of 
the  level  moulding  as  shown  by  k,  f,  g,  h,  9, 
and  from  convenient  points  as  shown  by 
1,  2,  3,  and  4  project  down  and  draw  the 
plan  of  the  moulding  and  also  the  mitre 


MOULDINGS  :    WORKING   AND    SETTING    THEM    OUT.  479 


B  L  as  shown ;  repeat  the  section  of  the 
horizontal  moulding  on  x  y  as  shown  by 
k",  f",  g\  h".  Now  consider  the  points 
1  to  9  and  V  to  9'  as  the  elevations  of 
horizontal  lines  on  the  moulded  surfaces, 
which  have  been  projected  from  the  sections 
and  are  repeated  on  plan.  These  lines  in 
plan  intersect  at  the  mitre  line  in  both 
the  horizontal  and  raking  moulds.  Now 
projecting  up  from  the  intersections  in 
the  plan  of  the  mitre  and  horizontally 
from  corresponding  points  g\  V,  2",  3',  4", 
in  the  elevation,  points  l",  a\  c\  d'  are 
obtained.  Then  from  these  points  draw 
lines  as  shown  at  the  proper  rake  to  cut 


Fig.  1585.— Section  of  Ramp  Moulding  to  have 
Straight  Mitre. 


the  line  M  n,  which  is  at  right  angles  to 
b'  c'  ;  make  the  ordinates  from  g"', 

3'\  the  same  lengths  from  m  n  as 
the  corresponding  ordinates  from  f'  k', 
thus  obtaining  the  section  of  the  upper 
portion  of  the  raking  moulding  so  that  it 
shall  intersect  with  the  horizontal  mould- 
ing in  a  vertical  mitre.  Points  in  the 
profile  of  the  lower  part  of  the  section 
of  the  raking  mould  are  shown  at  n",  6", 
1",  8"',  9'' ;  these  are  obtained  in  an  exactly 
similar  manner  to  the  upper  portion, 
and  no  difficulty  will  be  found  in  follow- 
ing the  working  illustrated.  Each  imagin- 
ary line  in  the  upper  moulded  surfaces 
is  represented  by  one  straight  line  in  plan 
in  every  case  but  one  ;  in  plan  one  line 
is  made  to  represent  an  imaginary  line 
directly  under  it  on  the  lower  moulded 
surface. 


Mitering  Mouldings. — When  two  pieces  of 
moulding  are  joined  together  by  mitering, 
the  mitre  is  straight  when  the  pieces  are 
straight,  or  of  the  same  curvature.  To 
facilitate  the  operation  of  mitering,  the 
mitre  is  often  made  straight,  and  the  contour 
of  one  of  the  pieces  of  moulding  is  varied  to 
suit  it.  Fig.  1585  illustrates  the  method. 
The  profile  of  the  straight  piece  is  given  ;  it 
is  necessary  to  find  that  of  the  curved  one. 
Take  points  on  the  given  section,  and  project 
them  to  a  projection  line  p  l  and  to  the 
mitre  line.  Draw  a  line  across  the  curved 
moulding,  radiating  to  the  centre  from 
which  the  curve  is  struck  (or  normal  to  the 


D. 


Fig.  1586.— Ramping  Moulding  to  Given  Point, 

curve  if  it  is  not  circular).  Continue  the 
lines  drawn  to  the  mitre  fine  to  this  fine, 
and  project  lines  thence  at  right  angles. 
Draw  the  projection  line  p  l  as  shown,  and 
obtain  the  intersections  on  the  points  on 
the  required  profile. 

Ramping  Moulding  to  Given  Point.— Fig. 
1586  illustrates  the  problem  of  ramping  a 
moulding  to  a  given  point,  such  as  occurs 
when  a  dado  rail  is  continued  from  the  level 
up  a  staircase,  or  from  a  staircase  to  a  land- 
ing, c  B  D  represents  the  fine  of  the  mould- 
ing. It  is  required  to  ramp  it  to  the  point 
A.  Draw  a  line  f  a  o  vertical.  The  centre 
of  the  curve  of  the  ramped  portion  will  be  in 
this  fine.  It  will  also  be  in  a  fine  drawn 
from  a  point  in  c  b  d  at  right  angles  to  it  ; 
the  point  in  c  b  d  being  the  place  at  which 


480 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


the  straight  portion  meets  the  curved- 
Through  A  draw  a  Une  d  e  at  right  angles 
to  c  D.  Take  points  f  and  e  in  a  f  and  a  e 
equidistant  from  a.  With  the  compasses 
get  to  a  distance  about  equal  to  the  line 
joining  f  e,  describe  arcs  with  f  and  e  as 
centres.  Join  a  to  the  intersection  of  these 
arcs,  and  produce  it  to  meet  c  d  in  b.  From 


Appliance  for  Marking-  Mouldings  for 
Mitering  and  Scribing. 

At  Fig.  1588  is  illustrated  an  appliance 
designed  to  do  away  with  the  difficulties 
commonly  met  with  in  marking  mouldings 
for  the  purpose  of  returning  the  ends  in  the 
solid,  or  for  scribing.    Properly  manipulated. 


Fig.  1587. — Easement  of  Angle 


Fig.  1588.  —  Application 
of  Apparatus  for  Mark- 
ing Mouldings  for  Miter- 
ing  and  Scribing  to  Wood 
Moulding. 


B  draw  B  o  at  right  angles  to  c  d.  Then  o 
is  the  centre  of  the  curve  joining  b  to  a,  and 
to  which  the  line  c  b  is  tangential.  [Any 
difficulties  met  with  in  solving  similar  prac- 
tical problems  should  be  submitted  to  the 
Editor  of  "Building  World"  for  solution  in 
that  journal.] 

Easement  of  Angle.— In  Fig.  1587  the 
method  of  easing  an  angle  is  shown.  Take 
points  D  and  e  in  a  b  and  a  c  equidistant 
from  A,  and  draw  hues  from  these  points 
at  right  angles  to  the  hues  in  which  they  are. 
These  intersect  at  o,  which  is  the  centre, 
ivhile  o  D  or  o  E  is  the  radius  of  the  curve. 


it  will  give  any  kind  of  scribe  or  mitre  that 
may  be  required.  The  pencil  has  a  flat  side 
planed  throughout  its  length,  so  as  to  bed 
fairly  on  the  plane,  and  is  used  as  indicated  in 
Fig.  1588,  which  shows  the  application  of  the 
apparatus  :  the  moulding  is  held  in  position 
by  the  left  hand,  any  m^rks  that  have  been 
made  on  it  being  adjusted  to  the  point  of 
the  pencil,  which  is  then  worked  all  round 
the  surface  of  the  moulding,  care  being  taken 
that  it  always  lies  flat  upon  the  plane.  The 
curved  line  shows  the  path  traced  round  the 
surface  of  the  moulding  by  the  point  of 
the  pencil. 


I 


SKIRTINGS,  DADOS,  PANELWORK,  LININGS,  ETC. 


Lining"  Material. 

All  pine  woods,  besides  many  hardwoods, 
are  used  in  the  production  of  Hning.  The 
hardwoods  generally  employed  are  mahogany, 
walnut,  maple,  oak,  etc.  Linings  may  be 
plain  V-jointed,  double  V-jointed,  beaded, 
or  reeded.    The  V  bead  or  reed  should  always 


Fig.  1589. — Method  in  which  Log  is  Cut  into 
Boards. 


be  formed  on  the  face,  or  best-dressed  side. 
Linings  vary  in  thickness  from  f  in.  to 
I  in.,  f  in.  being  the  size  mostly  used.  First 
quahty  Bjorneborg  pine  (red  and  white)  fur- 
nishes good  material  for  Hning.  Small,  firm 
knots  are  not  objected  to.  Pitchpine  should 
be  free  from  knots  and  sap  ;  likewise  first 
quahty  yellow  pine.  The  latter  is  most  ex- 
pensive, on  account  of  its  nature,  appearance, 
and  adaptabihty.  Half  an  inch  is  allowed 
for  the  tongue  on  all  pine  woods  ;  |  in.  on 
hardwood.    A  beautiful  grain  in  pitchpine 

21  i 


lining  is  an  important  feature  which  should 
always  be  considered,  but  which  cannot  be 
obtained  if  the  stuff  is  cut  athwart  the  grain. 
The  best  figure  is  always  obtained  from  the 
outside  of  sawn  or  hewn  logs,  the  nearer  the 
alburnum  of  the  wood  the  better.  Fig.  1589 
shows  graphically  how  this  occurs.  Let  it  be 
assumed  that  the  dotted  outer  ring  was  the 
original  size  of  the  tree  in  the  round.  The 
square  represents  the  size  to  which  it  was 
reduced  for  exportation.  Between  the  two 
outer  circular  lines  the  wood  is  sappy ; 
between  the  second  outer  line  and  the  heart 
it  is  resinous.  The  parallel  lines  represent 
saw-cuts.  All  the  planks  up  to  No.  8  are 
3i  in.  thick  ;  No.  9,  4i  in.  ;  Nos.  10  and  11, 
5  in.  As  pitchpine  lining  is  generally  3J  in. 
broad  in  the  rough,  it  may  be  assumed  that 
this  log  was  planked  out  by  the  log-frame 
for  lining  purposes.  Plank  No.  1  would 
yield  about  forty  |-in.  boards,  but  not  one 
would  show  a  good  figure.  The  result  of  No. 
2  would  be  almost  similar.  With  No.  3  a 
good  figure  would  appear,  especially  on  the 
outer  edges.  Nos.  4  and  5  would  produce 
a  finer  figure  still.  Nos.  6,  7,  and  8  would 
be  beautiful  across  their  entire  breadths. 
No.  9  should  be  cut  the  opposite  way  from 
the  planks  that  precede  it ;  if  cut  the 
same  way,  considerable  loss  would  result, 
and  no  figure  could  be  obtained.  Nos.  10 
and  11  should  also  be  cut  as  No.  9.  In  the 
butt  of  a  good  tree  there  should  be  no  knots 
outside  of  4-in.  radius  from  the  heart,  but 
the  heart  of  any  tree  (whether  butt  or  top) 
cannot  be  had  free  of  knots.  Yellow  lining 
is  commonly  f  in.  by  3  in.  ;  four  boards,  at 
f  in.  full,  are  got  from  3-in.  deals.  All  yellow 
wood  should  be  dried  in  a  kiln  before  being 
wrought  by  the  machine.  Thin  saws  only 
should  be  used  for  breaking  it  out ;  saws 
thicker  than  No.  15  gauge  are  not  suitable. 
With  No.  16  gauge,  four  pieces  at  \^  can 


482 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


be  got  from  a  3-in.  deal ;  -gV  in.  is  sufficient 
for  machine  dressing  and  working.  Narrow 
lining  is  preferable  to  that  which  is  broad  or 
double  V-jointed ;  however  well  seasoned 
the  broad  stufi  may  be,  shrinkage  is  more  or 
less  perceptible  in  a  few  months  after  it  is 
placed  in  position.  Hardwood  Hning  can- 
not be  manufactured  with  the  same  ease  as 
pine-wood  lining ;  with  hardwoods  more 
caution  must  be  observed,  and  more  time 
taken  in  the  sawing  and  machine  working. 

Fixing  Wooden  Plugs  for  Grounds. 

Plugs  are  pieces  of  wood  or  metal,  or  of 
wood  encased  in  metal,  that  are  inserted  in 
the  joints  of  brickwork  or  stonework,  or  are 
driven  into  holes  bored  into  brickwork  or 
stonework,  for  the  purpose  of  affording  a 


Fig.  1590.— Twisted  Plug. 

holding-place  for  those  fixtures  that  are 
erected  by  carpenters  and  joiners.  The 
twisted  plug  shown  by  Fig.  1590  is  made 
from  dry  straight-grained  deal,  the  opposite 
corners  of  which  are  cut  off  as  illustrated  ; 
the  thin  or  entering  edge  of  the  plug  is  left 
of  equal  thickness  along  its  width,  with  its 
edges  parallel. 

Securing  Skirting  in  Cottage  Work. 

For  securing  skirting  in  ordinary  cottage 
work,  joints  about  3  ft.  apart  are  made  in 
the  brickwork  with  a  plugging  chisel.  The 
plugs  should  be  of  the  shape  shown  in  Fig. 
1590,  each  fitted  in  its  own  joint,  and  driven 
in  up  to  the  shoulder  (Fig.  1591).  A 
chalk  line  is  then  stretched  from  the  first 
plug  to  the  last,  the  Hne  being  held  suffi- 
ciently far  from  the  surface  of  the  bricks  to 
allow  for  the  thickness  of  the  plaster.  The 


plugs  are  marked  at  this  point,  and  the 
superfluous  wood  is  cut  off.  When  the  wall 
has  been  plastered,  the  end  of  the  plug 
should  be  not  quite  level  with  the  surface  of 
the  plaster.  Fig.  1592  shows  the  common 
way  of  fixing  the  skirting. 


Fig.  1591.— Plug  Fitted  to  Joint. 


Securing  Skirting  in  First = class 
Work. 

In  buildings  of  a  more  pretentious  charac- 
ter, and  superintended  by  a  clerk  of  works,  a 
higher  class  of  work  is  expected.  Suppose 
an  order  has  been  given  to  fix  two  sets  of 
grounds  for  a  9-in.  skirting,  the  wal's  of  the 
room  to  be  perfectly  square  and  plumb  when 
plastered.  When  the  room  is  on  the  ground 
floor,  the  floor-level,  if  it  has  not  been 
marked,  must  be  obtained.  It  may  some- 
times be  got  from  an  adjoining  room,  where 
the  floor-level  has  been  determined  by  the 
floor  joist  running  over  one  of  the  cellars. 
The  room  must  now  be  squared  by  the  out- 
side wall,   working  through  the  window 


Fig.  1592.— Fixing  Skirting  in  Common  Work. 

opening  (Figs.  1593  to  1595),  the  inside  walls 
being  plumbed  from  floor  to  ceiling,  trying 
the  window  side  first  to  see  if  it  inchnes 
inwards  or  outwards  at  the  top  or  at  the 
bottom.  Then  the  joints  to  receive  the 
plugs  (beginning  with    the  window  side) 


SKIRTINGS,  DADOS,   PANELWORK,  LININGS,  ETC.  483 


must  be  cleared,  making  the  joints  18  in. 
apart  along  the  wall,  and  placing  the  bottom 
ground  or  row  of  plugs  about  1  in.  or  IJ  in. 
from  the  floor,  and  the  top  ground  J  in.  or 
f  in.  below  the  top  edge  of  the  skirting. 
When  all  the  plugs  have  been  driven  in  on 
the  window  side,  fasten  the  chalk  line  across 
the  room  to  the  bottom  row  of  plugs.  Then 
place  a  rule  across  the  window  opening  on 


rule  ;  b,  parallel  rule ;  c,  plugs  ;  d,  chalk  Hne  ; 
E,  equal  thicknesses.  Plugs,  to  which  blocks 
of  wood  (sometimes  called  "  soldiers  ")  must 
be  nailed,  should  also  be  placed  in  the  joints 
between  the  top  and  bottom  rows  ;  these 
plugs  must  be  about  2  ft.  apart  (f  f,  Fig. 
1596).  The  grounds  should  be  so  fixed 
that  the  walls  may  be  perfectly  straight, 
plumb  and  square  when  plastered  ;  and  the 


— 


1 

--E 

1 

.  1 

Fig.  1593. 

Figs.  1593  and  1594.— Use  of 
Parallel  Rule  and  Plumb  Rule 
in  Squaring  a  Room  from 
the  Outside. 

Fig.  1595. — Plan  of  Wall  showing 
Use  of  Parallel  Rule  and 
Plumb  Rule  in  Squaring  a 
Room  from  the  Outside. 


the  inside,  keeping  it  parallel  with  the  out- 
side of  the  wall  (Figs.  1593  to  1595),  and 
drop  a  plumb  hne  from  the  rule  as  a  guide 
to  set  the  chalk  Hne,  which  should  be  parallel 
with  the  rule.  The  chalk  Hne  should  be 
kept  back  the  thickness  of  the  grounds,  so 
that  the  latter  may  finish  flush  with  the 
face  of  the  plaster.  If  the  face  of  the  wall 
is  not  quite  straight  or  flat  (it  is  sometimes 
rounded  a  little),  the  face  of  the  ground  must 
be  I  in.  from  that  part  of  the  surface  that 
protrudes  most.  The  reference  letters  in 
Figs.  1593  to  1595  are  as  follows  :  A,  plumb 


Fig.  1595. 

least  amount  of  plaster  on  any  part  of  the 
walls  must  be  of  the  specified  thickness  (say 
I  in.).  Figs.  1596  to  1599  show  a  method 
of  preparing  the  grounds  and  fixing  skirting 
sometimes  adopted  in  first-class  work.  If 
the  wall  on  the  window  side  slopes  towards 
the  inside  of  the  wall,  say,  J  in.  at  the  top, 
the  faces  of  the  grounds  must  be  fixed  |  in. 
from  the  most  protruding  point  at  the  bot- 
tom, and  there  will  then  be  If  in.  of  plaster 
at  the  top.  When  the  chalk  line  is  parallel 
with  the  outside  face  of  the  wall,  the  Hne 
may  be  run  along  the  top  row  of  plugs,  keep- 


484 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


ing  it  perfectly  plumb  to  tlie  bottom  line, 
using  for  this  purpose  a  small  plumb  rule 
about  18  in.  long  by  2J  in.  by  J  in.    All  the 


squaring  the  other  sides,  taking  first  the  side 
to  the  right  and  plumbing  the  wall  from 
floor  to  ceihng  as  before,  making  due  allow- 


Fig.  1596. 


Fig.  1597. 


Fig.  1599. 

Figs.  1596  to  1599.— Method  of  Fixing  Skirting 
in  First-class  Work. 


plugs  may  now  be  marked  and  cut  off,  and  ance  in  setting  the  ground  for  any  round- 
the  window  side  will  be  ready  to  receive  the  ness  or  other  irregularity  on  the  face  or  at 
grounds.    Before,  however,  any  grounds  are     the  top  or  bottom  of  the  wall.    To  square 


Fig.  1600. — Method  of  Preparing  for  and  Fixing  Double-faced  Skirting. 

fixed,  the  other  three  sides  of  the  room  must  this  side  from  the  plugs  on  the  window  side, 
be  made  perfectly  true.  The  plugs  already  a  square  with  arms  about  8  ft.  long  will  be 
fixed  can  be  used  as  a  base  to  work  from  in     required,  one  edge  being  placed  against  the 


\ 


SKIRTINGS,  DADOS,  PANELWORK,  LININGS,  ETC. 


485 


face  of  the  sawn  plugs,  and  the  chalk  Hne 
set  parallel  to  the  other  edge.  This  side 
may  now  be  plugged,  and  the  chalk  line 
run  along  the  plugs  as  before,  after  which  the 
other  two  sides  of  the  room  can  be  done. 
When  the  plugs  for  the  skirting  ground 
have  been  cut  off,  the  window  and  door 
openings  must  be  plugged  to  receive  the 
grounds  for  the  architraves.  The  joint 
grounds  must  be  plumb  and  parallel,  and 
the  heads  must  be  square,  level,  and  J  in. 
or  f  in.  from  the  outside  edge  of  the  archi- 
trave. The  joints  must  be  lined  out  to  the 
grounds  behind  the  window  linings  and  the 


Fig.  1601, — Piece  of  Skirting  for  Internal 
Angle  Mitered  and  Dovetailed. 

door  casings.  All  the  internal  angles  of  the 
grounds  must  be  grooved  and  tongued,  and 
the  external  angles  mitered.  When  the 
grounds  have  been  fixed,  the  blocks  (f  f, 
Fig.  1596)  may  be  fijxed  between  them,  one 
being  placed  on  each  side  of  the  external  and 
internal  angles  to  form  a  sohd  angle.  The 
blocks  should  be  let  into  the  grounds. 
When  the  grounds  are  fixed,  a  nail  must  be 
driven  into  the  wall  on  each  side  of  the 
corners  of  the  room  near  the  ceiling,  plumb 
with  the  face  of  the  grounds.  The  nails 
must  not  be  more  than  9  ft.  apart,  and  on 
each  nail  a  pat  of  plaster  must  be  laid,  to 
which  the  plasterer  will  afterwards  have  to 
work.  At  Fig.  1600  is  illustrated  the 
method   of   fixing   double-faced  skirtings, 


which  are  usually  in  two  parts  as  shown. 
The  lower  member  is  prepared  with  a  tongue 
for  fitting  into  a  groove  made  in  the  flooring  ; 
its  upper  edge  is  ploughed  to  receive  a 
tongue  of  the  upper  member.  The  two 
parts  are  usually  of  nearly  equal  thickness, 
and  as  the  lower  one  projects  this  necessi- 
tates preparing  and  fixing  blocks  as  shown 
at  A ;  these  fit  to  the  back  of  the  skirting. 
The  grounds  c  are  as  previously  described. 
Where  the  skirtings  meet  at  the  internal 
angles,  they  are  usually  grooved,  tongued, 
and  scribed,  as  illustrated.  The  skirting  at 
D  is  purposely  drawn  off  from  e  the  better 
to  illustrate  the  construction.  Usually  the 
external  angles  are  simply  mitered,  and  for 
painted  work  are  nailed  together;  where 


Fig.  1602.—  Fig.  1603.— Cast-iron 

Lead  Plug.  Box  for  Gas  Bracket. 


nailing  is  not  permissible,  secret  dovetaihng 
gives  the  best  result.  This  is  illustrated  at 
Fig.  1601,  which  shows  the  mitre  and  dove- 
tails cut  to  receive  the  other  pieces. 

Lead  Plug's  and  Iron  =  cased  Plugs. 

All  plugs  and  woodwork  should  be  kept 
at  least  9  in.  from  fireplaces  or  flues,  and  if 
a  plug  is  required  within  the  prescribed  area, 
it  must  be  made  of  lead  (see  Fig.  1602).  If 
a  gas  bracket  is  to  be  fixed  on  the  chimney 
breast  or  opposite  a  flue,  the  wood  block 
must  be  tightly  encased  in  a  J-in.  cast-iron 
box  or  4:J-in.  cube  (outside  dimensions),  the 
grain  of  the  wood  being  vertical  (see  Fig. 
1603).  If  these  boxes  are  to  be  fixed  after 
the  walls  are  up,  they  must  be  fastened  with 
iron  wedges,  then  made  tight  all  round  with 
good  mortar.  All  wood  that  is  to  be  plas- 
tered over,  such  as  plugs,  is  kept  back  J  in. 
from  the  face  of  the  plaster. 


486 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Round  Wooden  Plugs. 

The  round  wooden  plug,  to  contain  which 
a  hole  is  drilled  in  brick  or  stone,  is  often 
found  to  be  useful,  but  the  larger  the  plug 
the  more  in  proportion  will  be  the  shrinkage 
in  drying.  The  plug,  therefore,  should  bear 
some  relation  to  the  size  of  the  screw.  A 
J-in.  or  f-in.  plug  is  quite  large  enough  for 


nor  so  durable  as  a  framed  dado  would  be, 
but,  given  good  fixing,  will  prove  serviceable 
for  many  years.  An  inspection  of  the  detail 
drawings  (Figs.  1608  to  1612)  will  make  it 


Fig.  1604.— Correct  Form    Fig.  1605.— Incorrect 
of  Round  Plug.  Form  of  Round  Plug. 

a  No.  12  or  14  screw.  Fig.  1604  shows  the 
best  form  of  round  plug;  Fig.  1605  is  a 
bad  form,  being  too  tapering,  but  it  is 
often  used. 

Dado  Sham  Framing-. 

Figs.  1606  and  1607  show  a  method  of 
constructing  a  cheap  and  effective  dado  to 
a  room.  The  framing  is  a  sham,  all  its 
members  being  mounted  on  the  face  of  the 
panelhng.    It  is,  of  course,  neither  so  strong 


& 


a  p 


SKIRTINGS,  DADOS.   PANELWORK,  LININGS,  ETC. 


487 


clear  How  the  effect  of  panelled  framing  is 
obtained.  The  hnings  to  the  door  and 
window  openings  (one  of  the  latter  being 
shown  in  Figs.  1606  and  1607)  are  carried 
over  the  framed  grounds  bounding  the  open- 
ings, and  they  project  J  in.  in  front  of  the 
architraves.  The  mouldings  of  the  surbase, 
plinth,  and  dado  rail  are  replicas  of  the  outer 
members  of  the  architrave,  up  to  the  level  of 
the  first  flat,  and  the  various  members  are 
mitered  into  the  architrave  and  finish  flush 
with  the  flat  d  (Fig.  1609).  The  architrave 
and  dado  rail  ground  are  rebated  to  receive 
the  panelling  as  shown  at  e  (Figs.  1608  and 
1612),  the  grounds  finishing  |  in.  thick. 
These  grounds  must  be  fixed  first,  plumb, 
square,  and  level ;  the  top  edge  of  the 
dado  ground  from  J  in.  to  f  in.  below  the 
line  of  the  dado,  which  in  this  case  is  4  ft. 
high.  The  grounds  are  fixed  to  wood  plugs 
driven  into  the  joints  of  the  brickwork  about 
every  2  ft.  One  of  these  plugs  is  shown  in 
dotted  outline  in  Fig.  1609.  The  plastering 
should  be  finished  flush  with  the  grounds, 
and  after  it  is  set  the  fixing  of  the  dado  can 
be  proceeded  with.  Assuming  all  the  mould- 
ings and  the  battens  for  the  panels  to  have 
been  prepared,  proceed  to  fix  the  door  and 
window  linings  as  shown  in  Fig.  1609.  These 
must  be  made  to  project  over  the  face  of 
the  grounds  If  in.,  the  edges  being  plumb 
and  out  of  winding.  Nail  them  to  the  grounds 
and  cross  backings  as  shown.  Next  set  out 
on  one  or  more  rods,  as  may  be  required,  the 
net  sizes  between  the  linings,  and  between 
the  faces  of  the  grounds,  on  the  ends  of  the 
room  where  no  linings  occur.  These  dimen- 
sions must  be  taken  very  exactly.  Take  a 
piece  of  the  architrave  mould,  and  with  its 
back  edge  on  the  lines  representing  the 
linings  set  off  its  width.  Then  space  out 
the  muntins  as  shown  in  the  plan  (Fig.  1607), 
in  each  case  using  a  piece  of  the  requisite 
moulding  for  a  gauge  by  which  to  obtain 
the  widths.  Immediately  beyond  the  first 
section,  and  working  from  the  same  boundary 
lines,  set  out  a  section  of  the  lower  panelling, 
upon  which  the  lower  muntins  are  drawn 
as  they  occur.  No  moulding  need  be  drawn, 
only  the  sight  fines  of  the  muntins.  One 
such  rod  should  be  prepared  for  each  bay,  and 
from  these  the  lengths  of  the  plinth,  surbase, 
and  dado  rails  may  be  obtained,  the  sight 


Fig.  1608.— Detail  Section  on  C  C  (Fig.  1606). 


488 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


lines  of  the  respective  architraves  and 
muntins  being  squared  across  their  edges 
with  the  marking  knife.  From  these  points 
the  mitres  may  be  cut  with  the  aid  of  a  mitre 
template.  A  similar  height  rod,  showing 
the  exact  heights  of  the  three  horizontal 
members  of  the  framing,  should  be  pre- 
pared. Before  setting  this  out,  the  state 
of  the  floor  should  be  ascertained.  If  it  is 
much  out  of  level,  or  irregular,  sufficient 
allowance  must  be  made  for  scribing  the 
plinth  level,  and  it  would  be  preferable  to 
allow  an  extra  J  in.  on  the  width  of  the 
plinth  for  scribing,  so  that  its  finished  height 


adopted.  In  fixing  the  grounds,  etc.,  take 
the  height  at  the  centres  of  the  grounds  G  G 
as  shown  on  the  rod,  and  plug  the  walls  to 
receive  them.  The  best  way  to  do  this  is  to 
drive  plugs  at  the  required  height  from  the 
floor  at  each  end  of  a  bay,  and  resting  a 
plumb -rule  in  the  rebate  of  the  top  ground 
E  (Fig.  1608),  plumb  it  upright,  and  with  a 
piece  of  the  thin  ground  as  a  gauge  drive  in 
the  plug  until  the  former  will  just  clear  the 
edge  of  the  rule.  Having  done  this  at  each 
end,  drive  a  nail  into  each  plug,  and  stretch 
a  chalk-line  between.  The  remaining  plugs 
are  then  driven  or  cut  off  flush  with  the 


"ig.  1609.— Detail  at  A  A  (Fig.  1606) 


should  remain  as  given — namely,  9  in.  As 
there  is  a  skirting  fillet,  an  extra  fit  for  the 
lower  edge  of  the  plinth  is  not  necessary. 

Fixing  the  Sham  Dado. — If  this  dado  is  to 
be  prepared  at  a  shop  some  distance  from 
the  building  where  it  is  to  be  fixed,  the  pre- 
pared rods  should  be  sent  on  there,  and  the 
joiners  would  fit  together  the  parts  as  shown, 
marking  with  a  chisel  all  the  mitres  on  the 
back  for  identification,  and  cutting  off  the 
battens  to  size  as  shown  for  the  panels.  In 
this  case  it  would  be  safer  not  to  cut  the 
mitres  in  the  architraves  until  they  had  been 
fitted  round  the  linings  ;  and  the  horizontal 
rails  should  be  cut  ofi  in.  full  at  each  end, 
so  that  they  should  fit  close  when  sprung  in 
place.  If,  however,  the  entire  work  were 
prepared  on  the  job,  then  a  sHghtly  different 
procedure  in  relation  to  the  fitting  would  be 


Fig.  1610.— Detail  of  Panel. 

line.  Next  the  floor  fillets  are  nailed  in  place 
as  shown  in  Fig.  1608,  the  exact  position 
being  ascertained  from  the  rod.  The  thick- 
ness of  the  plinths  is  carefully  noted,  and 
these  are  fixed  straight  by  the  aid  either  of  a 
spring  fine  or  of  a  long  straightedge.  After 
these  are  fixed,  the  plinth  backings,  pieces  of 
1  in.  by  1 J  in.,  are  fixed  to  plugs  about  every 
3  ft.,  and  finished  flush  with  the  floor  fillet. 
Upright  grounds  are  then  fixed  behind  each 
muntin,  as  shown  by  the  length  rod.  As- 
suming that  the  work  is  to  be  fitted  and  fixed 
on  the  job,  cut  the  plinths  in  tight  between 
the  finings,  fitting  the  piece  between  the 
window  linings  first,  and  cutting  in  a  tem- 
porary stretcher  between  the  door  linings. 


SKIRTINGS,  DADOS,  PANELWORK,  LININGS,  ETC.  489 


Scribe  the  wall  angles  of  the  pUnth,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  1611.  Having  fitted  the  pHnth  all 
round,  next  fit  the  architraves  round  the 
openings,  cutting  the  uprights  first.  Having 
fitted  these,  mark  them,  and  then  take  down. 
Fix  the  lower  sets  of  panels  as  shown  in  Fig. 
1608  ;  if  the  tongues  fit  tightly,  they  will  only 
need  a  brad  here  and  there.  They  should 
have  been  previously  all  out  to  size,  as  shown 
on  the  rod,  with  plenty  of  clearance  between 
their  edges.  The  upper  panels  may  now 
be  fixed.  These  will  only  require  bradding 
on  the  lower  edges,  with  an  occasional  brad 
in  the  upper  edge  to  keep  them  from  falling 
over.    Remove  the  plinth   first,  however. 


ensure  the  dado  being  level  all  round  the 
room.  It  should  be  noted  that  in  fitting 
the  dado  rail  the  top  member  does  not  come 
into  the  mitre,  but  is  stopped  square  against 
the  architrave,  a  beaded  backing  piece 
being  fixed  to  the  framed  ground  to  take 
this,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1609.  All  being  fitted 
together,  the  preliminary  to  fixing  is  to  run 
all  round  the  room  the  groove  for  the  skirt- 
ing shown  in  Fig.  1608.  This  would  be 
done  with  a  grooving  plane  working  against 
a  thin  strip  equal  in  width  to  the  thickness 
of  the  plinth,  and  resting  against  the  floor 
fillet.  This  groove  should  just  take  the 
pencil  line  previously  made  out,  so  that  the 
plinth  is  nipped  tightly  between  the  skirting 
and  fillet.  Proceed  to  fix  the  phnth  as 
shown  in  Fig.  1608,  bradding  the  top  edge 


Fig.  1611.— Isometric  Detail  of  Plinth. 

pencilling  a  line  along  its  face  on  the  floor, 
and,  taking  it  to  the  bench,  set  out  the  mitres 
for  the  muntins  from  the  rod,  as  described 
previously.  All  the  fitting  up  can  now  be 
done  on  the  bench,  as  the  external  sizes  are 
given  in  each  direction  by  the  architraves  and 
plinths  respectively.  To  get  the  lengths  of 
the  muntins,  after  fitting  accurately  an 
architrave  with  the  first  and  second  rails, 
turn  it  up  on  edge,  and  square  over  the  mitre 
or  sight  line,  on  one  top  and  one  bottom 
muntin,  and  use  these  as  length  rods  for 
setting  out  the  remainder.  A  template 
applied  to  the  sight  Hues  will  give  the  length 
of  shoulder  where  it  cuts  the  edge  of  the 
moulding  (see  H,  Fig.  1608).  The  first  fitted 
architrave  will  also  be  a  guide  by  which  to 
set  out  the  remainder,  care  being  taken  to 
keep  the  bottom  ends  flush,  which  will 

21* 


Fig.  1612.— Detail  at  B  B  (Fig.  1606). 

under  the  ogee,  where  the  holes  will  be  out 
of  sight.  Do  not  nail  the  lower  edge  ;  drive 
the  skirting  in  tightly,  preferably  gluing 
into  the  groove,  but  not  to  the  plinth.  Next 
fix  the  architraves  to  the  ground  and  back- 
ings, and  spring  the  rails  between  them,  brad- 
ding the  surbase  mould  as  shown  in  Fig.  1608. 
Also  insert  the  lower  muntins,  forcing  the 
surbase  moulding  down  tightly  on  to  them. 
Next  fix  the  top  muntins,  and  finally  the 
dado  rail.  The  latter,  having  to  keep  the 
whole  in  position,  is  better  fixed  with  screws, 
which  in  painted  work  would  be  turned  in 
flush  and  puttied  over,  and  in  poHshed  work 
should  be  sunk  into  holes  (as  shown  in  Fig. 
1608),  which  are  afterwards  filled  in  with 
turned  pellets  of  similar  wood.  Figs.  1606 
and  1607  are  reproduced  to  a  scale  of  }  in. 
to  1  ft.,  and  Figs.  1608  to  1612  half  full 
size.  The  following  is  a  Hst  of  letter  refer- 
ences not  explained  in  the  text :  j,  jamb- 
lining  ;  K,  ground  ;  l,  panelHng ;  m, 
backing  ;  n,  fillet ;  o,  architrave  ;  p,  dado 


490 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


rail  ;  Q,  top  panel ;  k,  surbase  mould  ;  T, 
bottom  panel ;  u,  plinth  mould  ;  v,  skirt- 
ing ;  w,  flooring  ;  x,  wall  line. 

Oak  Panelwork. 

In  the  framing  up  of  oak  panelwork, 
the  essential  requirement  for  sound,  true 
work  is  a  proper  regard  to  the  joints.  The 
material  is  used  so  thin  that  the  panelling 


it  touches  the  grounds,  and  will  wedge  the 
top  and  bottom  here  and  there,  in  order  to 
bring  the  work  true  and  straight  both  ways. 
A  common  fault,  causing  a  great  deal  of 
trouble,  is  the  neglect  to  thickness  down  the 
panels  before  final  insertion  in  the  framing. 
This  prevents  the  framing  from  touching 
the  grounds,  and  therefore  the  rough  plaster 
filling   or  screeding   must  be  hacked 


or 


Fig.  1613. 

Fig.  1613.— Part  Elevation  of  Oak  Wall  Panelwork. 
Fig.  1614.— Vertical  Section. 
Figs.  1615  and  1616.— Details  of  Ordinary  Mitered  Corner. 
Figs.  1617  and  1618.— Details  of  Mason-Mitered  Corner. 


Fig.  1614. 


Fig.  1618. 


should  be  stiffened  with  stout  canvas  glued 
to  the  back,  which  is  sometimes  primed  with 
red-lead  paint  to  afford  protection  from 
damp  when  the  work  is  placed  in  a  new 
building.  It  is  usual  to  frame  up  the  work 
with  stuff  varying  in  thickness  from  |  in. 
to  IJ  in.,  finished  sizes.  In  some  shops  it 
is  not  considered  necessary  to  thickness  the 
framing,  which  is  only  prepared  on  the  face 
and  two  edges  ;  in  which  case  a  little  more 
trouble  is  given  to  the  fixer  on  the  building, 
who,  if  his  grounds  are  straight  and  true,  will 
traverse  the  back  of  the  panelwork  where 


scraped  away  to  allow  of  the  panels  going 
back  without  firring  out  the  grounds.  Com- 
plicated methods  of  framing  require  the 
use  of  draw-bore  pins  and  oak  dowel  pins 
when  finally  gluing  up  the  framing  on  the 
benches.  A  point  that  must  be  emphasised 
is  that  the  tenon  should  be  kept  in  the  centre 
of  the  thickness  of  the  framing,  because 
under  the  pulHng  influence  of  the  cramp 
the  stile  or  rail  always  turns  to  the  weaker 
shoulder ;  and  when  guch  work  has  a 
shoulder  J  in.  deep  at  the  front  or  moulded 
side,  and  another  shoulder       in.  or  i  in. 


SKIETINGS,  DADOS,   PANELWORK,  LININGS,  ETC. 


491 


deep  at  the  back,  extra  labour  is  necessary 
in  order  to  bring  the  face  side  to  a  true 
surface,  while  the  extra  planing  may  injure 
the  moulding  on  the  edges,  whereas  a  sUght 
extra  thickness  of  material  would  obviate  all 
the  trouble  and  risk.  The  panelwork  shown 
in  Fig.  1613  is  framed  with  IJ-in.  stuff,  got  to 
thickness  and  widths  as  shown  in  Fig.  1614. 


Framing,  and  Skirting. 
Fig.  1620. — Vertical  Section  through  Fig.  1619. 

The  centre  framing  is  mitered  together  at  the 
corners,  which  are  further  strengthened  by 
the  insertion  of  a  cross-tongue  joint,  while 
the  side  rails  and  top  and  bottom  muntins 
are  tenoned  and  pinned  like  all  the  other 
tenons  in  the  framing.  The  moulding  stuck 
on  the  edges  (or  in  the  sohd)  is  not  mitered 
in  the  same  way  as  for  ordinary  work  (see 
Figs  1615  and  1616);  but  the  mitered 
corners  are  worked  as  shown  in  Figs.  1617 


and  1618,  thus  forming  joints  with  mason- 
mitered  corners  to  all  moulded  edges.  These 
corners  are  worked  by  the  joiner  on  the 
bench  after  the  panelhng  is  glued  up  and 
cleaned  off.  The  bottom  rail  is  tongued 
into  the  skirting  board  as  shown  in  Fig. 
1620,  and  the  top  rail  meets  the  festooned 
frieze  board  under  the  small  necking  mould 
as  shown,  the  frieze  board  being  tongued 
to  the  den  tilled  cornice  also.  This  cornice 
is  double-dentilled,  one  row  of  dentils  being 
cut  farther  back  than  the  other,  as  shown 
in  Figs.  1619  and  1620.  As  usual  with 
built-up  cornices,  this  section  can  be  worked 
on  the  four-cutter  moulder  or  on  a  spindle 
machine  ;  the  dentilhng,  however,  is  best 
cut  by  hand.  A  cover-board  hes  at  the  back 
of  the  cornice,  which  is  back-rebated  to  re- 
ceive the  front  edge  of  the  cover-board. 
The  three  flutes  over  the  top  muntins  have 
rounded-out  top  ends,  and  finish  at  the 
bottom  on  a  splay  ;  whilst  the  festoons  are 
preferably  cut  out  of  the  sohd,  but  are  gener- 
ally planted  on  unless  otherwise  specified. 
In  fixing  this  class  of  work,  which  is,  as  a 
rule,  screwed  up,  all  fixing  screws  should  be 
hidden,  or  the  holes  should  be  bored  to 
take  "  corks  "  a  little  larger  than  the  screw 
head,  and  the  "  corks  "  should  be  cut  from 
wood  closely  matching  that  in  which  the  hole 
is  bored.  The  framing  must  be  fixed  as  true 
and  upright  as  possible  (especially  at  ex- 
ternal corners  where  mitered  vertical  joints 
occur)  and  well  scraped  and  cleaned  down 
after  the  fixing  is  done.  The  illustrations 
are  reproduced  to  the  following  scales  : — 
Figs.  1613  and  1614,  f  in.  to  1  ft.  ;  Figs.  1615 
to  1618,  half  full  size  ;  Figs.  1619  and  1620, 
11  in.  to  1  ft. 

Fixing  Hardwood  Dado. 

Fig.  1621  shows  an  elevation  of  a 
panelled  dado  with  moulded  skirting  and 
capping.  The  dotted  lines  at  c  and  d  show 
the  fixing  fillets.  Fig.  1622  shows  a  section 
of  the  dado.  At  a  and  b  are  grounds  fixed 
to  wood  plugs  or  coke-breeze  bricks  built  into 
the  wall.  The  upper  ground  is  wide  enough 
to  take  2  in.  of  the  top  rail  of  the  dado  and 
2  in.  of  capping,  making  4  in.  in  all.  It  is 
splayed  on  the  top  edge  to  receive  and  to 
form  a  key  for  the  plaster.  On  ground  a  at  c 
are  dovetailed  fillets  (see  Figs.  1623  and  1627), 


492 


CARPENTEY  AND  JOINERY. 


fixed  at  convenient  intervals  of  about  3  ft. 
apart.  The  mortices  shown  in  Fig.  1624 
are  cut  into  the  top  edge  of  the  dado  rail  and 
the  under  edge  of  the  capping  ;  these  should 
be  set  out  on  the  bench  and  cut  in  before 
sending  on  to  the  job.    The  fillets  c  being 


In  fixing  the  dado,  it  should  be  placed  against 
the  grounds  in  its  exact  position,  with  the 
dovetailed  fillet  projecting  above  the  upper 
edge.    Two  screws  should  then  be  driven 


Fig.  1621.— Elevation  of  Panelled  Dado. 


Fig-.  1622. — Vertical  Section. 


prepared  and  fitted  into  the  mortices  and 
the  capping  fitted  on,  the  fillets  d  (Fig.  1625) 
are  cut,  tapered  in  shape,  and  dovetailed  as 
before.  Skirting  is  prepared  with  a  mould- 
ing tongued  into  the  upper  edge.  Before 


Fig.  1623.— Fixing  Ground  and  Fillets. 

gluing  in  the  moulding  permanently,  the 
skirting  should  be  grooved  on  the  rear  side 
as  shown  in  Fig.  1626,  and  fitted  on  to  the 
fillets  D.  The  skirting  is  prepared  in  this 
manner  to  enable  the  grooves  to  be  cut 
easily  and  clean.  As  the  piece  forming  the 
skirting  slides  on  to  these  fillets,  it  tightens 
itself,  and  so  a  good  secure  fixing  is  obtained. 


into  each  piece,  which  will  securely  fix  the 
whole  ;  the  capping  can  then  be  gently 
dropped  on  in  position.    It  will  be  advisable 


Fig.  1624.— Back  View  of  Upper  Part  of  Dado. 

to  use  a  little  glue  on  the  fillet  and  in  the 
mortices  in  each  case,  also  along  the  top 
edge  between  the  dado  and  capping.    It  will 


SKIRTINGS,  DADOS,  PANELWORK, 


:,  LININGS,  ETC. 


493 


be  seen  by  referring  to  Fig.  1625  that  the 
bottom  rail  of  the  dado  is  built  up  partly  of 


Fig.  1625. — Showing  Fixing  Fillets  for  Skirting. 


Fig.  1626. — Back  of  Skirting  with  Grooves  for 
Fixing. 

hardwood  and  deal,  e  being  deal.  Fig.  1628 
is  an  enlarged  detail  of  rail  and  skirting. 


Fig.  1628. — Detail  Section  of  Lower  Part  of 
Dado. 


Fig.  1627. — Conventional  View,  showing  Method 
of  Fixing  Upper  Part  of  Dado  and  Moulding. 


494 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Geometrical  Head  Linings  to  Door 
and  Window  Openings. 

In  the  case  illustrated  by  Figs.  1458  to 
1465  (pp.  447  and  448),  an  elliptical-headed 


1|  in.  by  2  in.,  having  been  jointed,  is 
nailed  firmly  to  the  edges  of  the  ribs, 
and  then  planed  off  true  to  the  elliptical 
curve.  The  board  to  form  the  veneer 
is  from  J  in.  to  J  in.  thick,  and  wide  enough 


Fig.  1629. — General  View  of  Cylinder.^showing  Veneer 
Bent  and  Partly  Staved. 

casement  window  was  shown,  finished  with  to  obviate  joining.  It  is  gradually  bent 
square  jamb  linings,  and  the  soffit  pre-  over  the  cylinder  by  first  fixing  a  broad 
pared    by    veneering    and    blocking.     A    stave  just  below   the   springing   a  (Fig. 


Fig.  1630.— Geometrical  Splayed  Linings  Built  Up 
in  Small  Sections. 


cylinder  is  made  of  the  form  shown  by 
Fig.  1629,  which  is  of  similar  construction 
to  a  centre.  Two  ribs  must  be  prepared, 
each  rib  consisting  of  two  thicknesses 
nailed  together  and  cut  accurately  to  the 
curve  required,  the  thickness  of  the  lag- 
ging being,  of  course,  deducted.  The  lag- 
ging, which  may  consist  of  strips  about 


1629).  Then,  with  a  piece  of  wood,  it  is 
gradually  pressed  and  worked  forward  a 
distance  of  about  12  in.  or  18  in.  A  stave 
is  then  screwed  down  temporarily  as  in- 
dicated at  B,  and  is  followed  by  a  second 
at  c,  and  so  on  until  the  veneer  is  bent 


SKIRTINGS,  DADOS,   PANELWORK,  LININGS,  ETC. 


495 


round  to  fit  tlie  surface  of  the  cylinder. 
For  ordinary-sized  openings,  thin  veneers 
can  usually  be  bent  round  dry  ;  for  narrow 
openings,  it  is  necessary  to  steam  the 
veneer,  or  to  soak  it  with  boiling  water, 
and  similar  preparation  is  nearly  always 
necessary  for  thick  veneers.  The  staves 
are,  of  course,  a  little  out  of  the  square, 
and  are  sufficiently  long  to  project  beyond 


//  ^  "  ^    ^  Fig.  1633. 


^  Figs.  1631  to  1633.— Method  of 

Obtaining  Shape  of  Veneer  for 
Geometrical  Splayed  Linings. 

the  veneer  as  illustrated.  At  each  end 
a  hole  is  bored.  Each  stave  is  fitted  to 
the  preceding  one,  and  glued  to  it  and  to 
the  veneer.  A  screw  is  then  inserted  in 
each  of  the  holes.  These  screws  hold  to 
the  lagging  of  the  cylinder.  If  the  veneer 
is  of  pine,  mahogany,  oak,  or  other  hard- 
wood, and  is  thick  enough  to  allow  of  its 
being  faced  up,  it  is  advantageous  to  do 
this  before  bending ;  but  where  it  is  neces- 


sary to  use  a  thin  veneer,  the  finishing  is 
done  afterwards,  by  means  of  scraping,  etc. 

Geometrical  Splayed  Linings,  Built 
Up  in  Small  Sections. 

Fig.  1630  illustrates  the  manner  of  build- 
ing up  a  curved  splayed  soffit  lining  for 
the  soffit  of  the  splayed  linings  illustrated 
by  Figs.  1256  to  1259  (p.  383).    By  this 
system,  pieces  are  cut  out  through  the 
thickness  of  plank,  which  may  be  from 
\\  in.  to  2  in.  thick,  a  mould  being  made 
for  the  proper  curve  at  each  joint.  It 
will  be  seen  that  this  curve  increases  from 
the  inner  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  lining, 
because   of  the  latter  being  conical.  By 
marking  out  on  each  side  of  the  plank, 
the  conical  cuts  can  be  at  once  made 
through   the   plank,   much   labour  being 
thus  saved.    If  a  handsaw  with  a  tilting 
table  is  available,  pieces  can  at  once  be 
cut  accurately  to  the  proper  sweep.  The 
butt  joints  of  the  ring  forming  the  inner 
edge  are  carefully  fitted  over  a  board. 
These  are  cross-tongued  and  glued.  The 
next  layer  is  fitted  and  jointed  on  this, 
the  joints  being  grooved  and  cross-tongued. 
Each  piece  is  then  bored  for  the  insertion 
of  at  least  two  screws,  to  connect  with 
the  lower  ring.    On  the  joints  being  found 
satisfactory,  the  screws  are  released,  and 
the  joint  between  the  rings  and  the  butt 
joints,   with  their  grooves  and  tongues, 
are    glued,    and    the    screws  re-inserted. 
This  process  is  repeated  for  each  layer. 
Then  the  soffit  is  worked  true,  and  the  ends 
trued   and   grooved   for   connecting  with 
the  jambs  at  the  springing.    This  latter 
form  of  joint  was  illustrated  by  Fig.  1465, 
This  method  is  not  generally  adopted  for 
hardwood  work,   owing  to  the  variation 
of  grain  distinctly  showing  when  polished, 
but  it  makes  a  good  sound  job  for  painted 
work. 

Geometrical  Splayed  Linings  Veneered 
for  Varnished  or  Polished  Work. 

The  example  illustrated  by  Figs.  1631 
to  1634  is  for  the  head  of  a  similar  door 
or  window  opening  to  that  treated  of  in 
the  previous  section,  except  that  it  is 
assumed  here  that  it  is  desired  to  show 
the   proper   side   grain   of   the  material, 


496 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


which,  of  course,  necessitates  the  preparing 
of  a  conical  -  shaped  cylinder,  and  the 
shaping  of  a  veneer,  also  the  staving, 
bending,  and  gluing  the  back  in  a  nearly 
similar  manner  to  that  explained  for  the 
example  illustrated  by  Fig.  1629  (p.  494). 
It  is  therefore  only  necessary  to  illustrate 
and  explain  the  method  for  geometrically 
setting  out  the  veneer.  Figs.  1631  and 
1632  show  respectively  the  half  elevation 
and  half  plan  of  the  conical-shaped  veneer. 
Continue  the  splay  of  the  lining  (shown  by 


a  veneer  wide  enough  to  obviate  jointing. 
In  the  case  of  some  timbers- -oak,  for 
instance — it  is  sometimes  possible  to  get 
a  piece  of  compass  timber,  the  object  being 
to  show  as  far  as  possible  the  continuous 
grain. 

Splayed   and   Panelled   Soffit  Lining 
for  EllipticaU  headed  Opening. 

The  preparation  of  the  elliptical  splayed 
and  panelled  soffit  lining  for  the  window 
illustrated  at  Figs.  1492  to  1494  (p.  457) 


I  c.  Fig.  1632)  till  it  cuts  the  centre  Hne 
in  D.  Then  a  i  d  is  the  plan  of  quarter 
of  the  imaginary  conical  surface.  Adopting 
the  well-known  principle  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  cone,  with  centre  d  and  radius 
I  describe  the  arc  i  9,  also  the  arc  c  10  ; 
divide  the  quadrant  (Fig.  1631)  into  any 
number  of  convenient  parts,  as  shown 
by  i'  to  9",  then  mark  off  distances  equal 
to  these  along  the  arc  i  to  9  (Fig.  1633). 
Then  c  1,  9  10  represent  one  half  the 
development  of  the  veneer.  The  other 
half  is,  of  course,  exactly  the  same  shape. 
Where  possible,  it  is  advisable  to  obtain 


may  now  be  described.  The  lining  being 
elliptical,  the  development  requires  rather 
more  elaboration  than  it  would  if  it  were 
semicircular.  The  method  of  construction 
consists  in  building  up  in  three  thicknesses 
on  a  cylinder.  One  thickness  is  equal 
to  the  amount  to  which  the  stiles  and  rails 
project  beyond  the  faces  of  the  panels 
as  shown  at  Fig.  1639  ;  the  strips  forming 
the  stiles  being  of  course  cut  out  to  shape. 
The  method  of  setting  out  for  these  shapes 
will  be  described  in  due  course.  The 
pieces  for  the  sham  stiles  are  bent  over  the 
prepared  cylinder  as  shown  at  Fig.  1639, 


SKIRTINGS,  DADOS,  PANELWOKK,  LININGS,  ETC. 


497 


and  are  held  in  position  by  staves,  which 
are  placed  at  intervals  as  indicated  at 
ABC  (Fig.  1639).  Pieces  of  similar  thick- 
ness are  then  accurately  fitted  in  between 
the  stiles,  so  as  to  form  sham  rails  as 
shown  at  D  and  E  (Fig.  1639).  Then  a 
thin  Veneer  is  bent  over.  This  veneer 
need  not  be  all  in  one  piece,  but  can  be 


r; 


X    ^r^-^   Ut  ■■ — 

I  '  ^ 

I  I  ' 

I  ■  J 

Fig.  1636.    I  '  I 

1  I  I 


formed  of  three  pieces,  the  joints  being 
made  along  the  middle  of  the  two  sham 
rails,  one  of  which  is  shown  at  d  (Fig. 
1639).  An  advantage  in  having  three 
separate  pieces  is  that  then  the  straight  grain 
may  be  so  arranged  as  to  run  tangential 
to  the  centre  of  the  panel,  giving  a  much 
superior  finish  when  the  work  is  stained 
or  poHshed.  These  veneers  are  glued  and 
bent  down  to  the  backs  of  the  sham  stiles 


and  rails.  Then,  on  the  back  of  the  veneer, 
the  staves  are  jointed  to  each  other,  and 
glued  and  screwed  down  as  indicated  on 
the  right-hand  half  of  Fig.  1639.  When 
doing  this  kind  of  work,  many  joiners 
consider  it  advantageous  to  glue  a  layer 
of  coarse  canvas  on  the  back  of  the  staving, 
in  order  to  give  additional  strength. 


Fig.  1635. 


Figs.  1635  to  1638  — Geometrical  Setting  Out  for 
Development  of  Elliptical  Conical  Soffit 
Lining. 

Construction  of  the  Cylinder. — As  will 
be  seen  by  Fig.  1639,  the  cylinder  is  a 
frustum  of  an  elliptical  cone.  Two  ribs 
are  made,  one  for  the  smaller  curve  shown 
by  d',  while  the  larger  rib  is  made  to 
the  curve  e'  (Fig.  1635).  The  edges 
of  these  ribs  are  bevelled  to  receive  the 
lagging,  which  must  be  nailed  on  as  pre- 
viously explained,  and  as  illustrated  at 
Fig.  1639,  which  shows  the  cylinder  as 
being  somewhat  wider  than  the  lagging, 
to  allow  the  projecting  staving  to  be  secured 
temporarily  to  the  lagging  with  screws. 

Geometrical  Construction  for  Soffit. — Be- 
gin by  drawing  the  springing  line  a'  c", 
and  then  draw  the  elHptical  curve  a'  d', 
which  is  the  line  of  intersection  between 
the  soffit  and  the  head  of  the  sash  frame. 
Continue  the  springing  line  to  the  left, 
then  at  any  convenient  point  a""  erect  a 
perpendicular.    Project   horizontally  from 

to  cut  this  Hne  at  d'',  and  thus  a''  jy" 
is  the  side  elevation  of  the  curve  a'  t>' . 
Now  project  down  and  draw  the  plan 
of  this  curve  as  shown  by  a  d.  Through 
D  draw  the  line  b  e  parallel  to  A."  c".  Then 
B  E  is  the  direction  of  the  plan  of  the  axis 


498 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


of  the  cone.  From  a  set  off  the  plan  of 
the  angle  of  the  jamb  lining  as  shown  by 
A  5.  Continue  this  line  till  it  cuts  b  e. 
Then  b  is  the  plan  of  the  vertex.  Project 
up  as  indicated  by  b  At  d""  set  off 

the  angle  of  the  crown  of  the  soffit  (which 
is  here  shown  as  having  the  same  angle 
as  in  the  plan).  This  will  give  the  line 
e''  and  b""  is  the  side  elevation  of  the 
vertex.  Then  through  b''  draw  the  hori- 
zontal line  X  Y,  and,  continuing  the  minor 
axis  d'  &  to  cut  X  y,  obtain  the  elevation 


r\  From  these  points 

project  horizontally  to  meet  the  elevation 
of  the  generators,  obtaining  points  5',  6', 
7\  S\  e',  as  shown.  Through  these  points 
the  outer  curve  can  be  drawn.  From  the 
points  4'"  in  the  springing  line,  draw  the 
elevation  and  side  elevation  of  an  additional 
generator.  From  4'  to  e'  straight  piece 
has  been  added,  so  as  to  work  from  the 
level  of  the  vertex.  This  expedient  will 
simplify  the  working  for  obtaining  the 
development. 


of  the  vertex  b.  Dividing  a'  into  any 
convenient  number  of  equal  parts,  as  here 
shown,  through  the  points  a',  V,  2\  3\ 
draw  lines  radiating  from  B.  It  will  be 
an  advantage  to  continue  these  lines  in- 
definitely. We  now  have  the  elevation 
of  the  generators  of  the  conical  surface. 
Project  horizontally  from  1',  2',  3',  thus 
obtaining  points  V,  2'\  3''  (Fig.  1636). 
From  B^'  draw  radiating  lines  through 
these  points,  thus  oobtainig  the  side  eleva- 
tion of  the  generators.  Complete  the  half- 
plan  of  the  lining  as  shown  by  d  a  5  e, 
project  up,  and  draw  g''  e'"  ;  then  the 
generators   wil]    cut   this   line   in  points 


Obtaining  the  Development  of  the  Soffit. — 

In  dealing  with  an  elHptical  cone,  the 
generators  gradually  increase  from  the 
minor  to  the  major  axes  of  the  section. 
Therefore,  before  the  development  can 
be  set  out,  it  is  necessary  to  obtain  the 
true  length  of  each  generator.  Stated  in 
geometrical  terms,  the  problem  is,  "  Given 
the  plan  and  elevation  of  an  oblique  line, 
determine  its  true  length."  At  right  angles 
to  the  generator  5  b  (Fig.  1637),  draw 
B  5',  making  it  equal  to  g''  (Fig.  1636). 
Join  5'  to  5.  This  gives  the  true  length 
of  the  generator.  The  others,  shown  by 
6',  1\  W  (Fig.  1637),  are  obtained  in  a 


SKIRTINGS,  DADOS,  PANELWORK,  LININGS,  ETO. 


499 


similar  manner.  Now,  with  compasses  set 
to  the  length  5  4',  using  b  as  a  centre, 
describe  an  arc  as  shown  by  a,  and  with 
compasses  set  to  g''  4''  (Fig.  1636),  using 
5  as  centre,  draw  the  arc  h.  Where  the 
arcs  intersect  at  4,  join  to  b.  With 
compass   set   to   the   true   length   5  5', 


stifi  paper  to  the  laggings,  to  ascertain 
the  slope  of  the  development,  in  this  way 
obtaining  moulds  for  marking  and  cutting 
out  the  stufi  which  was  to  be  bent  on  the 
cylinder. 

Preparing  Soffit  out   of  the  Solid. — The 

principal  points  involved  in  setting  out 
and  making  splayed  and  panelled  soffit 
lining  by  cutting  and  working  up  the 
several  pieces  out  of  the  solid  without  any 
bending  are  as  follows.    At  a  (Fig.  1640) 


describe  the  arc  c.  With  b  as  centre, 
and  with  radius  4'  b'  (Fig.  1635),  using 
4  as  centre  (Fig.  1638),  describe  the  arc  d, 
which  gives  point  5.  Draw  5  b.  In 
this  manner  points  6,  7,  8,  and  e  can 
be  obtained,  and  generators  drawn  from 
them  to  B  as  indicated  ;  while  through  the 
points  just  mentioned  the  outer  curve  of 
the  development  can  be  drawn  as  shown. 
By  marking  off  the  breadth  of  the  soffit 
on  each  generator,  obtain  points  a  1,  2,  3,  d, 
through  which  the  inner  curve  of  the  develop  - 
ment  can  be  drawn.  This  completes  the 
outline  of  the  development  for  one-half 
the  soffit.  The  stiles  and  muntins  can  next 
be  set  out  as  shown.  From  this  develop- 
ment moulds  can  be  made  for  the  stiles, 
and  the  shape  of  the  veneers  for  the  panels 
can  be  ascertained. 

Obtaining  Development  Direct  from 
Cylinder. — For  obtaining  the  development, 
a  method  which,  while  not  quite  scientific, 
is  nevertheless  practical,  and  has  been 
largely  used  by  joiners  in  the  past,  is 
to  make  a  cylinder  as  true  as  possible, 
and  then  to  set  out  the  soffit  on  the  lag- 
gings ;    then,  by  applying  cardboard  or 


E  F 


Fig.  1640.— Setting  Out  Edge  Moulds. 

are  shown  in  plan  the  ends  of  the  stiles 
of  the  soffit  at  the  springing.  The  parallel 
lines  AB,  CD  show  the  thickness  of  the 
plank  required.  Projecting  up  from  c  d 
and  A  B,  draw  the  curves  d'  k,  c'  l,  b'  m, 
a'  n,  which  represent  the  face  moulds 
c'  d',  l  k,  for  application  to  one  side  of 
plank,  a'  b",  m  n,  the  face  mould  for  the 
other  side  of  plank.  Then,  setting  a  bevel 
to  the  angle  o,  c,  a,  and  applying  it  to  a 
plank  which  has  been  cut  for  the  joints 
as  shown  by  a  b,  the  rectangle  1,  2,  3,  4 
indicates  a  piece  of  plank.    By  cutting 


500 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


1641. — Conventional  View  of  Plank 
from  Moulds  ready  for  Sawing. 


along  the  lines  a.\  t>\  the  plank  is  made 
to  assume  the  form  shown  by  Fig.  1641. 
Now  apply  and  mark  the  shape  of  the  inner 
face  mould  on  the  under  side  of  the  plank 
as  indicated  by  a  b  m  N  (Fig.  1641). 
Then  the  outer  face  mould  can  be  applied 
to  the  plank  and  marked  as  indicated  by 
the  curves  c  k  and  d  l  (Fig.  1641).  The 
piece  for  the  stile  can  now  be  sawn  out  as 
represented  at  Fig.  1642.  A  band  saw 
with  a  tilting  table  is  advantageous  for 
doing  this  kind  of  sawing.  The  inner  edge 
is  worked  square  to  the  sofht  of  the  stile 
as  represented  by  e  f  (Fig.  1643).  The 
stiles  for  the  part  of  soffit  adjacent  to  the 
frame  are  set  out  and  prepared  in  a  similar 


Fig.  1643.— Stile  with  Inner  Edge  worked  Square 

to  Soffit.  Fig.  1642.— Stile  Cut  Out. 


Geometrical  Setting 
Out  for  Head  Panel. 


SKIKTINGS,  DADOS,  PANELWORK,  LININGS,  ETC. 


501 


manner.  The  curved  stiles,  having  been 
so  far  prepared,  can  be  set  out,  and  mortices 
made  for  the  rails,  which  are  then  ploughed 
for  the  panels.  The  joints  at  the  crown 
are  most  satisfactorily  connected  with 
hand-rail  screws. 

Setting  Out  for  Panels. — A  half-elevation 
of  the  sofht  is  indicated  at  Fig.  1644,  the 
framing  being  shown  by  dotted  lines  and 
the  panels  by  solid  lines.  Having  set  out 
the  half  elevation  of  the  panels  as  shown, 
project  across  and  make  a  sectional  eleva- 
tion as  shown  at  Fig.  1645.  As  each  of 
the  moulds  for  the  panels  is  obtained  by 
an  identical  method,  attention  may  be 
confined  to  the  necessary  working  for  the 
top  panel,  and  setting  out  for  one  half  will 
be  sufficient.  Points  a,  b,  c,  d  (Fig.  1644) 
have  been  projected  across,  giving  new 
projections  of  these  points  at  Fig.  1645, 
and  the  thickness  of  the  panel  is  represented 
by  A  B,  1  5.  A  3,  c  B,  it  should  be  noted, 
represents  the  curved  face  of  the  panel. 
Inclose  this  sectional  elevation  of  the  panel 
by  a  rectangle  as  represented  by  1,  2,  3,  and 
4.  This  shows  the  thickness  and  the  breadth 
of  the  plank  required  for  the  panel.  Fixing 
on  any  convenient  points  in  c  b,  as  d,  e,  / 
(Fig.  1644),  project  horizontally  to  c  b 
(Fig.  1645).  Then  from  the  points  just 
obtained,  project  at  right  angles  to  1  5 
(Fig.  1645).  Make  each  of  these  projectors 
the  same  length  from  1  5  as  they  are 
from  A,  B  in  Fig.  1645,  and  thus  obtain 
points  d,  e,  /,  and  (Fig.  1646),  through 
which  the  curve  can  be  drawn  as  shown. 
Similarly  projecting  horizontally  from  d  a, 
6  c,  A  to  AD  (Fig.  1645),  the  curve  passing 
through  points  5  c  6,  a  (Fig.  1646) 
is  obtained.  Joining  c"  to  t>"  gives  the 
shape  of  the  mould  to  apply  to  the  face 
of  the  plank.  For  the  moulds  to  apply  to 
the  edge  of  the  plank,  proceed  as  follows  : — 
The  points  c,  d,  e,  f,  b  are  projected  to 
B  c  (Fig.  1645).  Projecting  from  these 
points  parallel  to  a  b,  and  drawing  a  line 
at  any  convenient  distance  at  right  angles 
as  h  k,  then  measuring  from  this  line 
and  making  each  projector  the  same  length 
as  the  corresponding  one  from  a  b,  points 
&,  d\  e\  f,  b'  are  obtained,  giving 
points  in  the  curve,  which  can  be  drawn 
through  them  as  shown.    The  second  curve 


1647. — Conventional  View  of  Piece 
with  Edg-e  Moulds  Applied. 


Plank 


502 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


m  n  can  be  drawn  parallel,  representing    ally  the  same  shape  as  at  4  d''  g  1  (Fig. 


the  thickness  of  the  finished  panel.  The 


1646),  and  thus  d  g,  h  K  (Fig.  1647)  repre- 
sents the  piece  of  plank  for  the  top  panel 
cut  to  its  first  shape  1,  5,  being  the  centre 
line.    On  the  top  edge  is  shown  the  apphca- 


mould  for  the  inner  edge  is  shown  by 
A  D  (Fig.  1645),  and  has  been  obtained 
from  the  curve  B  a  (Fig.  1644)  in  a  similar 
manner.  At  f  (Fig.  1646)  is  shown  the 
edge  of  the  plank  developed,  and  the 
outer  edge  mould  applied.  The  appHca- 
tion  of  the  inner  edge  mould  is  shown  on  tion  of  the  outer  edge  mould,  while  the 
the  developed  edge  of  plank  at  e.  At  appHcation  of  the  inner  edge  mould  is  in- 
D  G  1  5  (Fig.  1647)  is  shown  convention-     dicated  by  dotted  fines.    Fig.  1648  repre- 


SKIRTINGS,  DADOS,  PANELWORK,  LININGS,  ETC. 


503 


sents  the  concave  face  side  of  the  panel 
worked,  and  at  Fig.  1649  the  face  mould 
CD,  L  M,  applied  to  the  back  of  the  panel. 
The  inner  and  outer  edges  are  worked  to 
these  curved  lines,  and  then  the  panel  is 
gauged  and  worked  to  thickness.  This 
completed  state  is  fully  shown  by  Fig.  1650. 

Veneered  Splayed  Lining:  to  Opening 
with   Circular  Head   and  Segmental 
on  Plan,  Figs.  1651  to  1654. 

At  Figs.  1510  and  1511  was  shown  a 
circle-on-circle  window  opening  with  splayed 
linings.  Here  will  be  described  and  illus- 
trated methods  of  setting  out  and  construct- 
ing the  conical  soffit  lining,  which  is  con- 
structed of  a  veneer  staved  or  blocked  at 
the  back.  Draw  the  plan  of  the  face  of  the 
lining  as  shown  by  t>,  e,  f,  c,  b,  a  ;  con- 
tinue D  A,  F  c,  and  E  B,  giving  point  0, 
this  being  the  plan  of  the  vertex  of  the 
conical  surface.  Projecting  up  from  a 
and  B,  draw  the  curve  a'  b',  which,  as  ex- 
plained in  connection  with  Fig.  1511, 
will  probably  be  a  quarter  of  an  elHpse. 
Fix  on  any  convenient  points  in  a'  b", 
as  r,  2",  3',  and  draw  radiating  hues  to  0', 
which  are  the  elevation  of  generators. 
Projecting  down  from  V,  2\  3",  on  A  b, 
we  obtain  point  1,  2,  and  3.  Draw  through 
these  points  lines  radiating  to  0,  which 
are  the  plans  of  the  generators.  It  is  now 
necessary  to  draw  a  side  elevation.  Make 
x'  parallel  to  b  o.  Project  up  from 
A,  1,  2,  3,  and  b,  thus  obtaining  points 
a',  V,  2",  3',  and  b",  through  which  the 
curve  can  be  drawn,  representing  the  inner 
edge  of  the  lining.  Project  from  0,  obtain- 
ing point  0'^  From  this  draw  the  elevation 
of  generators,  passing  through  points  V,  2\ 
3",  b'.  As  the  frustum  of  a  cone  on 
which  to  block  and  bend  the  veneer  will 
have  to  be  constructed,  the  plans  and 
elevations  for  the  curves  of  the  ribs  may 
next  be  drawn.  At  2  in.  or  3  in.  away 
from  D  and  f,  draw  G  K  at  right  angles 
to  H  o.  Also  at  a  couple  of  inches  from 
B  draw  L  N.  Then  g  l  n  k  will  represent 
the  outUne  plan  of  the  frustum  of  a  cone 
(commonly  called  the  cylinder)  required. 
Continue  the  generators  to  G  k,  giving 
points  K,  7,  8,  9,  h.    Obtain  the  elevation 


of  these  points  on  the  side  elevation  (Fig. 
1653)  as  shown  by  k'\  9'', 
From  these  points  in  plan  project  up 
to  the  elevation,  and  then  make  7'  from 
X  Y  the  same  distance  as  7''  from  x'  y', 
and  8'  the  same  distance  from  x  y  as 
8''  is  from  x'  y'.  Points  9'  h'  are  obtained 
in  the  same  manner ;  then  the  curve 
drawn  through  these  points  as  shown 
from  k'  to  h'  is  the  shape  of  the  outer 
rib,  including  the  thickness  of  the  lagging. 
The  curve  in  elevation  from  to  m'  is 
obtained  by  projecting  from  points  in  M  n, 
where  the  plans  of  the  generators  cut  it, 
and  from  these  points  project  up  to  the 
elevations  of  the  generators  as  shown. 
This  curve  is  for  the  smaller  rib,  including 
the  thickness  of  the  lagging. 

Development  for  Veneer.— The  curve  from 
to  h'  is  not  the  quarter  of  a  circle,  and  as 
it  is  a  section  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of 
the  conical  surface,  the  generator  o  h  will  be 
the  longest,  the  others  gradually  decreasing 
to  o  K.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  obtain 
the  true  lengths  of  each  generator.  From 
9  draw  a  line  parallel  to  the  axis,  then, 
with  9  as  centre,  and  o  as  radius,  obtain 
point  a.  Project  up  to  x'  y',  giving  point 
a\  Join  to  9''.  Then  this  line  a'  9''  is 
the  true  length  of  the  generator  0  9.  Points 
b  b\  c  c\  and  thus  the  true  lengths  of  the 
other  generators,  have  been  obtained  in 
the  same  way  as  0  9.  With  compass  set 
to  distance  7'  (Fig.  1652),  and  G  as 
centre,  describe  the  arc  15.  With  beam 
compass  set  to  7''  c'  (Fig.  1653),  using 
o  as  centre,  cut  the  arc  15  (Fig.  1654). 
Again,  with  radius  equal  to  7\  8\  and  15  as 
centre,  describe  arc  14 ;  and  then  with 
8"'  (Fig.  1653),  using  o  as  centre,  cut 
arc  14,  The  remainder  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  conical  surface  is  completed 
by  the  same  procedure.  The  development 
of  the  line  G  k  having  been  obtained,  now 
by  measuring  the  distances  7'\  4'",  8"', 
5"'  (which  are  obtained  on  the  true  lengths 
of  the  generators),  from  15  to  4  and  14  to 
5  respectively  (Fig.  1654),  we  obtain  points 
in  the  curve.  As  all  the  other  distances 
are  ascertained  by  the  same  expedient, 
there  is  no  difficulty  in  completing  the 
shape  of  the  veneer  as  shown  by  the  irregular 
curved  lines  f  d  and  p  a  (Fig.  1654).  The 


504 


CAEPENTHY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  1656. — Horizontal  Section  of  Jamb. 


Fig.  1655. — Conventional  View  of  Drum  with  Veneer  Shaped  and  Bent. 

conical  drum  (Fig.  1655)  shows  the  veneer 
cut  to  shape  and  bent  over  ready  for  staving. 
The  method  of  doing  this  having  been 
previously  dealt  with,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  recapitulate. 


Fixing^  Hardwood  Door=casing:s,  etc. 

A  general  view  of  a  door  and  casings,  etc., 
in  hardwood  is  represented  at  Fig.  1658, 
and  the  details  showing  the  method  of 
secret  fixing  are  given  by  Figs.  1656  to 
1659.  In  each  figure,  a  represents  the 
framed  ground  which  is  fixed  to  masonry 
in  one  of  the  usual  ways.  The  side  grounds 
marked  B  are  fixed  to  the  edges  of  the  framed 
grounds  as  indicated.  Fillets  c,  with  each 
end  cut  to  the  form  of  a  dovetail  tenon 
D,  are  prepared  and  screwed  to  the  back 
of  the  rail  of  the  framed  and  panelled 
jamb  as  shown  at  c  (Figs.  1656  and  1659). 
The  jambs  are  then  fixed  in  position  by 
screwing  the  dovetail  ends  to  the  grounds, 
one  of  which  is  shown  at  D  (Fig.  1657). 
The  portions  of  the  stiles  forming  the 
rebates,  having  been  prepared  with  slots 
as  shown  at  e  (Fig.  1657)  to  fit  the  ends 
of  the  fillets  as  shown  at  d,  can  be  glued 
and  fixed  into  their  positions.    The  archi- 


Fig.  1657. — Conventional  Sectional  View  of 
Portion  of  Face  of  Framed  and  Panelled 
Jamb. 


SKIETINGS,  DADOS,  PANELWORK,  LININGS,  ETC. 


505 


506 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


traves  are  fixed  by  preparing  hardwood 
strips  with  dovetail  edges  as  represented 


the  architrave  as  shown  at  g  and  h  (Fig. 
1660),  so  as  accurately  to  fit  the  dovetail 
slips.  The  inner  member  of  the  architrave 
is  fixed  in  position  first,  and  the  outer 
member  H  afterwards.    Thin  glue  should  be 


Fig.  1659.— Conventional  Sectional  View         Fig.  1660.— Back  of  Architrave, 
of  Back  of  Jamb.  showing  Dovetailed  Slots. 


Fig.  1661. — Panelled  Wainscoting  :  End  Wall  showing 
Fireplace  and  Doorway. 


Fig.  1662.— Enlarged  Part  Section 
on  Line  C  D  (Fig.  1661). 


at  F  (Fig.  1659).  Corresponding  slots  are  brushed  on  the  dovetailed  sUps  and  groove, 
made  in  the  back  of  the  two  parts  forming     and  along  the  tongue  edge  of  the  inner  section. 


SKIRTINGS,  DADOS,  PANELWORK,  LININGS,  ETO. 


507 


Fig.  1663. — Enlarged  Section  on 
Line  A  B  (Fig.  1661). 


Fig.  1661  shows  the  treatment  of  an  end  wall 
in  which  a  fireplace  and  doorway  occur. 
Fig.  1666  shows  a  side  wall  with  a  three-light 
recessed  window  in  it.  Fig.  1663  gives  an 
enlarged  section  on  line  a  b  (Fig.  1661), 
showing  details  of  the  over-door  a,  archi- 


Fig.  1664.— Enlarged  Elevation  of  Left- 
hand  Jamb  of  Wood  Mantel. 


Fig.  1665. — Enlarged  Part  Section  on  Line  E  F 
(Fig.  1666). 


Panelled  Wainscoting.  trave  b,  the  top  portion  of  the  five-panel 

The  wainscoting  here  shown  could   be  door  c,  and  the  framed  jamb  finings  d, 

executed  either  in  hardwood  pofished,  or  lintel  e,  framing  f,  and  grounds  G.    The  top 

in  yellow  pine  painted  and  finished  white.  member  of  the  over-door  intersects  with 


508 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


the  top  member  of  the  wainscoting.  Fig. 
1664  represents  a  part  enlarged  elevation  of 
the  left-hand  jamb  of  the  wood  mantel,  also 
portions  of  the  wainscoting.  The  surbase 
moulding  h  is  stopped  by  the  wood  mantel, 
but  the  skirting  intersects  with  the  plinth  of 


linings,  and  the  pulley  frames.  Fig.  1667 
represents  the  plan  of  the  stone  mullion, 
showing  boxings  for  the  sash  weights.  For 
greater  convenience  in  making  and  fixing, 
it  would  be  better  to  make  the  framing 
above  the  surbase  moulding  independent  of 


Fig.  1666. — Side  Wall,  with  Panelled  Wainscoting,  showing  Three-light  Recessed  Window. 


the  jambs.  Fig.  1662  shows  an  enlarged 
part  section  on  line  c  d  (Fig.  1661)  of  the 
mantelpiece  and  the  wainscoting  over  it. 
A  brass  frame  is  screwed  on  to  the  mantel, 


i  ^ 

/  J 

8 

}  M 

\  

Fig.  1667. — Plan  of  Stone  Mullion  showing 
Boxings. 

breaking  the  joint  between  the  wood  mantel 
and  the  firebrick  lining  to  the  dog  grate. 
Fig.  1665  represents  an  enlarged  part  sec- 
tion on  Une  e  f  (Fig.  1666),  showing  details 
of  the  cornice,  the  pilasters,  the  panelled 


that  below,  the  framing  above  and  below 
being  connected  by  a  rebated  joint,  which 
is  covered  by  the  surbase  moulding.  Figs. 
1661  and  1666  are  reproduced  to  the  scale 
of  J  in.  to  1  ft.,  and  Figs.  1663  to  1665,  and 
Fig.  1667,  to  the  scale  of  f  in.  to  1  ft.  For 
Fig.  1665,  which  represents  an  enlarged  part 
section  on  line  e  f  (Fig.  1666),  see  p.  507. 

Wall  Panelling  and  Enriched  Cornice 
for  Billiard  =  room  or  Dining^=room. 

Figs.  1668  to  1685  show  the  preparation 
and  fitting  of  a  dado  and  wainscoting 
suitable  for  a  biHiard-room,  dining-room, 
hall,  or  other  similar  apartment  in  a  first- 
class  villa,  or  in  a  town  mansion  or  country 
residence.  Various  hardwoods  are  used  for 
such  work,  but  probably  oak  is  most  popular. 
Fig.  1668  shows  the  side  of  the  room  iiY 
which  the  doorway  and  its  fitments  are 


SKIRTINGS,  DADOS,  PANELWORK,  LININGS,  ETC.  509 


situated  ;  Fig.  1669  the  side  of  the  room 
containing  the  fireplace.  The  dressing 
round  the  lower  portion  of  the  fireplace 
usually  consists  of  marble  or  other  masonry, 


up  with  pilaster  jambs  and  soffit  (see  the 
perspective  sketch,  Fig  1671).  The  mould- 
ings are  worked  on  the  solid  of  all  the  stiles 
and  rails.    The  general  principles  of  set- 


Fig.  1668.— Elevation  of  Door  and  Portion  of  Panelling. 

while  the  frieze  directly  over  the  fireplace,  ting  out  rods,  preparing  the  stuff,  setting 

the  cornice  shelf,  and  the  overmantel  with  out  for  mortising  and  tenoning,  mitering, 

pediment,  etc.,  are  constructed  of  wood,  and  so  forth,  having  been  already  dealt 

The  woodwork  against  the  external  wall,  with  in  other  sections  of  this  book,  it  is 

and  the  inside  elevation  of  the  opening  unnecessary  to  repeat  such  details,  and 

(illustrated  at  Fig.  1670),  are  shown  fitted  therefore   the   accompanying  illustrations 

with    casements    and    frame    having    an  have  been  prepared  with  the  object  of 

elliptical  fanlight,  the  opening  being  fitted  showing  more  particularly  the  fitting  and 


510 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


connecting  of  one  part  to  another,  and 
the  general  fixing  of  the  entire  work.  It 
is  assumed  that  provision  for  fixing  has 
been  made  by  building-in  wood  bricks, 
or  by  some  other  method  in  general  use. 


A  block  B  (see  Fig.  1674),  stub-tenoned  and 
notched  for  the  rebated  ground  and  plinth^ 
or  for  the  skirting  moulding,  is  fixed  to  the 
wall  and  floor.  The  skirting  is  fixed  by 
being  tongued  into  the  floor,  and  dovetail- 


SKIRTINGS,  DADOS,  PANELWORK,  LININGS,  ETC. 


511 


512 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


fig.  1671.— Pilaster,  Linings,  Soffit,  Cove  of  Ceiling,  etc. 


SKIRTINGS,  DADOS,  PANELWORK,  LININGS,  ETC. 


513 


514 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


grooved  so  as  to  slide  on  to  the  hardwood 
dovetail  slip  shown  at  d.  The  skirting 
moulding  is  ploughed  on  the  under  edge  p 
to  receive  the  top  edge  of  the  plinth,  or 
of  the  skirting.  The  rebated  ground  ii 
is  next  screwed  to  the  back  of  the  plinth 
mould  as  indicated  at  k.  Then,  the  mould 
and  the  ground  being  placed  in  position, 
the  bottom  edge  of  the  latter  is  held  by 
the  short  stub -tenons  in  the  tops  of  the 
blocks,  and  is  nailed  on  through  the  rebated 
portion  into  the  wall  ground,  firmly  fixing 
the  plinth.  The  bottom  edge  of  the  dado 
is  rebated,  leaving  a  barefaced  tongue  in 


Fig.  1674.— Method  of  Fixing  Plinth  and  Bottom 
Edge  of  Framing. 


the  front,  and  can  then  be  dropped  into 
position  as  shown  at  L  (Fig.  1674).  The 
top  edge  of  the  dado  frame  is  sufficiently 
wide  to  allow  of  its  being  screwed  to  the 
wall  ground  G  as  indicated  at  n  (Fig.  1675), 
these  screws  being  afterwards  hidden  by  the 
dado  moulding.  The  ground  M  having  been 
screwed  to  the  dado  moulding  at  n,  these 
are  placed  in  position  with  the  tongue 
of  the  ground  fitting  into  the  top  of  the 
dado  as  shown.  The  ground  m  is  then 
fixed  to  the  wall  ground  G  by  naihng  through 
the  rebate  as  shown  at  R.  The  dado  mould 
and  the  ground  R  have  a  groove  formed  be- 
tween them,  in  which  the  barefaced  tongue 
on  the  bottom  edge  of  the  upper  framing 
o  fits  as  shown.  The  top  end  of  the  upper 
framing  is  rebated  to  receive  the  bottom 
edge  of  the  curved  facia  D,  and  is  screwed 


to  the  ground  G  (Fig.  1676)  ;  the  fixing 
being  hidden  by  the  astragal  mould  c, 
which  is  fixed  either  with  screws  and  slots, 
or  preferably  by  doweUing  to  the  top  of 
the  upper  framing.  The  ground  e  having 
been  screwed  to  the  back  of  the  curved 
facia,  the  upper  part  of  the  ground  is 
nailed  into  the  ground  G.    The  ground  e, 


Fig.  1675.— Method  of  Fixing  Top  Edge  of 
Lower  Framing,  Dado  Moulding,  and 
Bottom  Edge  of  Upper  Framing. 


Fig.  1676.— Method  of  Fixing  Cornice  to  the  Top 
of  the  Framing. 

projecting  above  the  ground  g,  forms  a 
rebate  at  the  back,  allowing  the  bottom 
ends  of  the  blocks  F  to  fit  into  the  rebate. 
These  blocks  are  secured  to  the  back  of 
the  mouldings  forming  the  cornice,  and 
then  the  top  ends  of  the  blocks  are  notched 
and  nailed  as  indicated.  Figs.  1677  and 
1678  show  the  method  of  fixing  the  astragal 
moulding,  curved  facia,  and  top  cornice 
moulding.  A  wall-ground  f,  which  has 
been  rebated  on  the  top  edge  and  splayed 


SKIKTINGS,  DADOS,  PANELWORK,  LmiNGS,  ETC. 


515 


on  the  bottom,  is  fixed  as  shown.  To 
this  the  astragal  moulding  should  be 
fixed  with  screws  and  slots  or  dowels 
and  screws,  inserted  from  the  upper  part 
of  the  round.  These  are  out  of  sight. 
The  bottom  edge  of  the  curved  facia 
fits  into  a  rebate  made  in  the  ground  G, 


Fig.  1673  a  vertical  section  taken  through 
the  centre,  to  indicate  the  method  of 
building  up  and  fixing.  Fig.  1679  shows  a 
horizontal  section  through  the  bottom  panel 
of  the  pilaster ;  Fig.  1680,  a  horizontal 
section  taken  through  the  pilasters  and 
upper  panelling.  These  views  show  in 
section  how  the  pilasters  are  mitered,  jointed, 
and  tongued  at  the  angles,  and  rebated  to 
fit  against  and  between  the  stiles  of  the 


Fig.  1677, 


Figs.  1677  and  1678. — Method  of  Fixing  Main  Cornice  under  Cove  of  Ceiling. 


and  is  fixed  to  it  by  screws.  The  cornice 
is  fixed  by  screwing  the  member  b  to 
the  ground  G,  and  then  vertical  blocks  c 
are  screwed  to  the  member  e.  Bracketing 
pieces  d  are  screwed  to  the  top  moulding 


Fig.  1680.— Enlarged  Horizontal 
Section  through  Fluted  Pilaster 
and  Panelling. 


Fig.  1679.— Enlarged  Horizontal  Section  -through 
Lower  Panel  of  Pilaster. 

as  indicated,  and  should  also  be  glued 
and  blocked  ;  then  the  bracketing  pieces 
are  nailed  to  the  vertical  block  c,  and 
these  in  their  turn  can  be  nailed  to  the  wall. 
The  carved  egg-and-tongue  moulding  is 
fixed  by  means  of  gluing  and  dowelhng  as 
indicated  at  h  (Fig.  1678).  Figs.  1672 
and  1673  show  enlarged  details  of  a  pilaster  ; 
Fig.  1672  representing  an  elevation,  and 


Fig.  1681.— Enlarged  Section  through 
Upper  Curved  Pilasters. 


framing.  At  b  (Fig.  1680)  is  shown  the 
method  of  connecting  the  pilasters  inter- 
secting at  an  internal  angle.  Fig.  1681  is 
a  section  through  the  top  of  the  pilasters 
that  have  carved  panels.  Fig.  1682  is  a 
conventional  detail  view  showing  the  plinth 
of  the  dado  grooved,  and  the  floor  also 
grooved,  as  represented  at  a,  b,  and  c, 
to  receive  the  plinth  forming  the  base  of 
the  pilaster.    Fig.  1683  is  a  conventional 


516 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


view  showing  principally  the  back  of  one 
of  these  bases.  In  the  same  figure,  tongues 
are  shown  for  fitting  into  A,  B,  and  c  (Fig. 
1682),  with  the  moulding  scribed  to  fit 
the  mouldings  of  the  pHnth.  Various  ex- 
pedients for  fixing  these  bases,  by  screwing 
fillets  to  the  inside  of  the  base  and  screw- 
ing these  fillets  to  the  floor,  will  suggest 
themselves.  Then  a  rebated  fillet  is  fixed 
to  the  inside  of  the  moulding,  a  portion  of 
which  is  shown  at  a  (Fig.  1683)  and  in 
section  at  a  (Fig.  1673).  The  bottom  ends 
of  the  lower  pilasters  are  made  to  fit  ac- 


The  method  just  described  for  the  fixing 
of  the  lower  pilaster  is  adopted  for  the  upper 
pilasters,  the  bottom  "end  of  each  being 
connected  as  indicated  at  b,  c,  d,  and  e 
(Fig.  1673).  Fig.  1685  is  a  conventional 
sectional  view  of  the  bottom  left-hand 
corner  of  the  door,  and  of  the  base  of  the 
adjacent  pilaster,  etc. 

Framed   and   Panelled   Linings  with 
Boxing  Shutters  to  a  Doorway. 

Fig.  1686  is  the  half  outside  and  half 
inside  elevation  of  a  circular-headed  door 


Fig.  1683. 


Fig.  1682. 
Figs.  1682  and  1683 


— Methods  of  Fixing  Base  of 
Pilaster. 


Fig.  1684. — Back  of  Pilaster  with  Fixing  Buttons 
Screwed  On. 


curately  behind  the  base  moulding,  and 
are  prepared  with  a  barefaced  tongue  so 
as  to  fit  into  the  rebate  of  the  fillet  a.  The 
pilasters  are  also  held  to  the  edges  of  the 
framing  by  buttons,  two  of  these  (a  a, 
Fig.  1684)  being  shown  screwed  on  to  the 
back  of  the  returned  edges  of  the  pilasters  ; 
and  buttons  are  screwed  on  to  the  edges 
of  the  framing  as  shown  at  b  b  (Fig.  1682). 
When  the  pilaster  is  placed  against  the 
framing,  and  slid  down  into  its  base,  the 
buttons  A  and  b  clip  together,  and  thus 
firmly  hold  the  pilaster  to  the  framing. 


Fig.  1685.— Conventional  Sectional  View  showing 
Bottom  Left  Corner  of  Door  Base  of  Architraves, 
Pilaster,  etc. 


SKIRTINGS,  DADOS,  PANELWORK,  LININGS,  ETC. 


Fig.  1687. 


PW4 

Fig.  1688. 

Fig.  1686.  —  Half  In- 
side and  Half  Outside 
Elevation  of  a  Door 
with  Marginal  Lights, 
Panelled  and  Splayed 
Linings,  and  Boxing 
Shutters. 

Fig.  1687. — Horizontal 
Section. 

Fig.  1688.— Vertical 
Section. 


518 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


opening.  The  inside  of  the  opening  is 
finished  with  framed  and  panelled  splayed 
bottom  Hning  a  (Fig.  1686) ;  the  interme- 
diate portion  B  is  framed  and  panelled 


Fig.  1689. — Enlarged  Detail  of  Horizontal 
Section  at  A  (Fig.  1687). 


with  boxing  shutters  in.  thick.  As  will 
be  seen,  these  are  provided  for  covering 
the  glass  portion  of  the  door,  thus  taking 
the  place  of  a  lifting  shutter,  being  more 


Fig.  1690. — Conventional  View  of  Brickwork  at 
Upper  Part  of  Opening. 

convenient.  The  head  lining  has  a  rail  c 
(Fig.  168G)  following  the  curved  head  of 
the  door  frame,  but  the"  outer  edges  of 
these  linings  are  square.    The  curved  rail 


of  the  head  lining  follows  the  splay  all  round, 
and  hence  its  outer  surface  is  conical,  [but 
very  flat,  and  thus  not  necessitating  any 
complicated  geometrical  setting  out.  It 
should  be  cut  to  the  circular  form  out'  of 
a  board  about  f  in.  thicker  than  the  other 
stiles   of   the   framing,     having    a  loint 


Fig.  1691. — Enlarged  Detail  of  Vertical  Section. 

at  the  crown  as  shown.  Then  the  bevel 
should  be  marked  on  each  end  ;  then  by 
running  a  gauge  on  each  edge  from  the  lines 
on  the  ends,  the  conical  surface  can  be 
formed  by  planing  down  to  these  gauge 
lines.  The  joint  at  the  crown  may  be 
formed  by  grooving  and ;.  tonguing,  by 
halving  together,  or  by  making  the  muntin 


SKIRTINGS,  DADOS,  PANELWORK,  LININGS,  ETC. 


519 


of  a  piece  of  thicker  material,  so  that  a 
projecting  portion  of  it  can  run  down 
behind  the  stile,  and  be  screwed  to  each 
half.  Another  way  of  making  the  curved  rail 
would  be  to  form  it  of  two  thicknesses  glued 
and  screwed  together,  the  front  portion 
being  in  two  parts  and  the  back  in  three. 
In  either  case  it  would,  of  course,  be  ploughed 
to  receive  the  panels,  and  at  the  springing 
it  would  be  stub-mortised  to  receive  the 
tenons  of  the  rails.  The  stiles  and  top 
rail  meeting  on  the  splay  would  have  to 
be  mitered  together  as  illustrated  at  d 
(Fig.  1686)  ;  the  most  satisfactory  method 
of^ jointing  here  probably  would  be  by  an 
open  mortice  and  tenon.  From  the  illus- 
trations it  will  be  clear  that  the  face  side 
of  the  panel  is  a  twisted  surface,  its  square 


edges  being  in  a  vertical  plane  and  its 
circular  edge  starting  conically  ;  but  for 
the  example  illustrated  it  will  be  found 
that  stuff  about  If  in.  thick  would  be 
sufficient.  This  would  require  jointing  up, 
the  grain  running  in  the  direction  as'^shown 
at  Fig.  1686  ;  then,  with  the  bevel  set  to  the 
splay  of  the  linings  applied  at  the  spring- 
ing and  crown  end  of  the  panels,  and  run- 
ning a  gauge  line  round  the  curved  edge, 
the  face  side  of  the  panel  could  be  worked 
to  shape.  To  readers  who  have  perused 
preceding  descriptions,  the  general  construc- 
tion of  the  door,  shutters,  etc.,  will  be  clear. 
Fig.  1690  is  a  conventional  view  showing 
part  of  the  brickwork  of  the  arch  and  the 
reveal  prepared  to  ,  receive  linings  and 
shutters. 


PARTITIONS   AND  SCREENS. 


Setting  Out  Panelled  and  Moulded 
Framed  Partition. 

For  the  panelled  and  moulded  framing  of 
which  an  elevation  is  shown  by  Fig.  1692, 


a  rod  13  ft.  long  by  11  in.  wide,  and  proceed 
to  set  out  the  plans  of  Fig.  1692,  seen  on  rod 
Fig.  1693,  the  stiles  and  muntins  being 
4J  in.  wide.  First  square  across  the  rod  two 
lines  12  ft.  apart.    Draw  four  Hnes  parallel 


-12-0- 


Fig.  1692. — Elevation  of  Panelled  and  Moulded  Framing-. 


Fig.  1693.— Sectional  Plans  on  Width  Rod  of  Panelled  and  Moulded  Framing. 


one  piece  of  deal  framing  is  required.  12  ft. 
by  10  ft.  by  2  in.,  three  panels  in  height, 
moulded  both  sides,  with  a  door  at  one  end, 
with  rebated  and  beaded  joints.    First  take 


with  each  other.  If  in.  apart,  to  represent  the 
thickness  of  the  framing.  From  the  right- 
hand  end  mark  off  4^  in.  for  the  outer  stile 
B  (Fig.  1693).    Form  the  rebate  with  mould 


520 


PxiRTITIONS  AND  SCREENS. 


521 


Fig.  1694. — Enlarged  Section  on  Line  A  A  (Fig.  1692). 


1695.— Enlarged  Section  on  Line  B  B  (Fig.  1692). 


Fig.  1696.— Vertical  Sections  on  Height  Rod  of  Panelled  and  Moulded  Framing. 


(Fig.  1694).  When  a  mortice  lock  is  to  be 
used,  the  rebate  must  be  formed  out  of  the 
centre  to  enable  a  half-rebated  lock  to  be 
let  into  the  door  ;  but  sufficient  strength 
must  be  left  for  the  bead  to  form  the  stop. 
Set  off  from  the  rebate  2  ft.  8  in.,  the  width 
of  the  door,  and  fill  in  4^  in.  for  the  stiles 
and  4J  in.  the  centre  for  the  muntin,  leaving 
9f  in.  sight  for  the  panel.  Fill  in  the  stile  of 
the  framing  next  the  door,  and  also  the  left- 
hand  outer  stile,  with  moulds  (Fig.  1694). 
Now  divide  the  space  between  into  six 
panels  as  shown.  Set  these  spaces  out 
accurately,  and  fill  in  the  muntin  with 
the  mould  (Fig.  1695).  Fill  in  the  lines 
representing  the  panels,  also  the  moulding 
on  both  sides.  To  show  what  is  required, 
it  is  sufficient  to  fill  in  one  panel  with  the 
section  of  the  moulding,  a  (Fig.  1693) 
may  now  be  set  out  from  b,  as  the  plan  for 
each  is  the  same,  except  for  the  two  panels 
over  the  door.  The  hanging  and  shutting 
stiles  carry  the  4i-in.  line  to  the  top  rail. 
Turn  the  rod  over  to  the  other  side,  and  set 
out  the  sections  as  shown,  and  to  figured 
dimensions,  c  (Fig.  1696)  is  a  section 
through  the  framing  ;  d  is  a  section  where 
the  door  occurs.  Fig.  1697  represents 
the  quantity  board.  In  a  big  shop,  the 
foreman  joiner  or  setter  out  takes  off  the 
material,  books  it,  and  hands  it  to  the 
chalk-line  foreman,  who  marks  out  from  the 
board  all  the  material  required.  The  board 
is  then  handed  to  the  machinist,  and  finally 


o 


1  ?WD«^  'P-cM^^  J^KL^ru^Jl'o 


rt  In. 

Ft.  In 

In. 

3 

10  3 

2 

n  2 

2 

q  0 

3  0 

5 

3  \0k 

5 

2  0 

6 

2  8i 

1  i 

X 

2 

S  8 

1  z 

6 

1  Q 

2 

6  10 

2 

2 

2  Q 

1 

1 

3  7 

J 

2  0 

t 

1  Q 

'■^ 

2 

3  Si 

2 

1  9 
1  1 

5- 

T 

q  3 

2 

8  2 

5  8 

2 

5  1 

Fig.  1697.— Quantity  Board. 

to  the  material  clerk,  to  be  entered  in  the 
prime  cost  account.     First  take  off  the 


522 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


framing,  stiles,  rails,  and  muntins,  then  the 
panels,  the  door  stiles,  etc.,  in  the  same  order. 
The  whole  of  the  mouldings  may  be  booked 
as  one  item  if  taken  from  a  stock  pattern. 


Fig.  1698. — Half  Elevation  of  Glazed  Partition. 


but  if  the  moulding  is  to  be  prepared  to  a 
special  section  it  is  best  ordered  in  single 
lengths,  sufficient  to  mould  one  panel.  Odd 
lengths  of  Stuff  can  be  used  up  in  this  way 
without  waste.  Any  remarks  necessary 
should  be  added  in  the  space  reserved  for  the 


purpose  at  the  bottom  of  the  board  as  shown 
(Fig.  1697). 

Setting  Out  Glazed  Partition. 

For  the  glazed  partition  shown  in  half 
elevation  by  Fig.  1698,  one  piece  of  deal 
framing  is  required,  9  ft.  by  10  ft.  8  in.  by 
2  in.,  three  panels  in  height ;  the  lower 
panels  being  square,  the  two  upper  panels 
divided  into  nine  squares,  each  with  moulded 
bars,  etc.,  for  glass  ;  a  door  to  match  to  be 
formed  in  the  centre  with  rebated  and  beaded 
joints,  and  prepared  for  a  6-in.  mortice  lock 
(half  rebated).  Take  a  rod  12  ft.  long  by 
11  in.  wide,  and  set  out  the  plan  and  sec- 
tions of  Fig.  1698,  which  shows  the  elevation 
of  the  glazed  partition,  e  (Fig.  1699)  repre- 
sents the  plan  below  the  transom  rail,  and 
shows  the  square  framing  and  the  position  of 
the  bars  and  diminish  to  stiles.  The  dotted 
lines  on  the  rails  in  the  elevation  show  the 
diminish,  f  (Fig.  1699)  is  a  plan  above  the 
transom  rail,  and  is  set  out  from  e,  the  Hues 
being  perpendicular  from  the  middle  rail 
upwards.  The  hanging  and  shutting  stiles 
are  carried  up  the  diminished  width  above 
the  transom,  forming  a  muntin,  and  the 
transom  rail  is  cut  as  shown  in  Fig.  1698. 
Determine  the  position  of  the  door,  and  set 
out  as  before  ;  the  diminish  to  stiles  is  set 
off  from  the  inside  edge  in  each  case.  Note 
that  the  openings  for  the  glass  are  equal  in 
width,  which  should  be  obtained  as  follows  : 
First  set  out  with  moulds,  illustrated  by 
Figs.  1694  and  1695  (p.  521),  the  position 
of  the  muntins  and  stiles.  Place  the  bars 
exactly  in  the  centre  of  the  muntins.  The 
panel  width  works  out  at  7  in.  sight ;  2  in. 
on  each  side  to  the  centre  of  the  muntins 
makes  11  in.  ;  J  in.  deducted  on  each  side 
for  the  half  thickness  of  the  bar  leaves  10  in. 
sight.  Now,  10  in.  is  wanted  for  the  squares 
on  each  side.  The  stiles  must  therefore  be 
diminished  1  in.,  and  the  required  10  in. 
is  obtained.  This  will  therefore  be  the 
width  of  all  the  openings  above  the  transom 
rail ;  and  the  side  framings  below  the  open- 
ings in  the  door  work  out  at  11  in.  g  and  h 
(Fig.  1700)  are  sections  through  the  side 
framings  and  where  the  door  occurs.  Fig. 
1694  is  an  enlarged  detail  of  the  door  on  the 
line  A  A  (Fig.  1692),  and  Fig.  1695  is  an  en- 
larged detail  on  the  line  b  b  (Fig.  1692). 


PARTITIONS  AND  SCREENS. 


523 


Set  these  sections  out  in  the  same  manner 
as  before.    Make  a  quantity  board  (Fig. 


Q 


Wt 


III 

■gllll  -K 


I  a) 


bo 


1703),  as  described  in 
graph,  and  book  the 
shown. 


the  previous  para- 
material  on  it  as 


Hall  Screen  with  Door. 

Fig.  1704  shows  an  elevation  of  a  hall 
screen,  the  approximate  size  of  which  may 
be  taken  as  10  ft.  high  by  8  ft.  wide.  Fig. 
1705  shows  a  vertical  section,  and  it  will  be 


Fig.  1702.— Enlarged  Section  on  Line  B  B 
(Fig.  1698). 

observed  that  the  thickness  of  the  two  outer 
jambs  above  the  transom  c  is  reduced  1  in. 
on  the  rear  side  d  ;  while  the  three  muntins 
E  F  G  (Fig.  1704)  are  worked  to  the  same 
thickness  (their  finished  sizes  being  3  in.  by 
3  in.),  and  are  wrought  quite  square.  They 


o 


10  P 
'■1  i 


2.  / 

9  0 
3'  0 
7  8 
3  8 

1  10 

7  0 
<L  n 

2  / 


9. 
2 


4-^ 


VvU  4^  to  -v^  fiifi^ 

off  and  j>ruit£j^;1ic^n  to  ^j^^ce^ 


Fig.  1703.— Quantity  Board. 

are  simply  rebated  on  the  rear  side  to  re- 
ceive the  leaded  lights  and  bead,  and  are 
tenoned  into  the  transom  c  and  curved  rail 
H  (Fig.  1705),  the  top  and  rear  sides  of  which 
are  also  rebated  in  the  same  way  as  for  the 


524 


CARPENTHY  AND  JOINERY. 


muntins.  Fig.  1706  gives  a  horizontal  sec- 
tion, showing  the  outer  jamb  a  and  door 
jamb  B,  which  are  worked  from  4-in.  by  4-in. 
and  4-in.  by  3-in.  stuff  respectively.  The 


and  muntins.  On  both  the  front  and  the 
rear  sides  the  top  rail  has  sunk  and  moulded 
spandrils,  as  shown  at  j  (Fig.  1704),  and  this 
rail,  when  fixed  to  its  proper  position,  sets 


Fig.  1706. 

Fig.  1704.— Elevation  of  Hall  Screen.       Fig.  1705.— Vertical  Section  of  Hall  Screen. 
Fig.  1706. — Horizontal  Section  of  Hall  Screen. 


top  rails  i  (Fig.  1705)  are  tongued  |  in.  into  back  from  the  face  of  the  screen  1  in.,  which 

the  jambs  and  muntins,  and  are  cut,  wrought,  allows  for  the  moulding  k  to  be  mitered  and 

shaped,  grooved,  and  ovolo -moulded  from  returned  to  jambs  and  muntins  as  shown, 

an  11 -in.  by  2-in.  sound  plank,  and  framed  as  is  also  the  neck  moulding  l,  which  should 

flush  with  the  rear  sides  of  the  outer  jambs  be  grooved  Jin.  into  the  jambs  and  muntins, 


PARTITIONS  AND  SCREENS. 


525 


the  whole  piece  of  framing  being  afterwards 
strengthened  on  the  rear  side  by  the  top 
moulding  m,  which  is  glued  and  planted 
on  (Fig.  1705).  All  the  framing  below  the 
transom  c  is  rebated  and  beaded  to  receive 
the  door,  sidelights,  and  under-side  framing, 
all  of  which  is  2  in.  thick,  and  is  finished 
flush  to  the  rear  side  of  the  framing,  the 
front  side  of  which  is  ovolo-moulded.'  The 
sidehghts  and  the  top  portion  of  the  door 
are  also  rebated  for  glass,  and  ovolo-moulded, 
and  are  constructed  as  shown  in  the  eleva- 
tion. All  the  bars,  except  those  framed 
into  the  upper  edge  of  the  middle  rail  of 
the  door,  should  be  mortised  and  tenoned 
through  both  stiles  and  rails,  and  glued  and 


round-headed  screws.  The  screen  may  be 
executed  in  good  yellow  deal  or  pine  twice 
sized  and  twice  varnished  with  good  copal. 
If  it  is  made  in  either  oak  or  mahogany  it 
may  be  oiled  or  French-polished.  The  door 
should  be  hung  with  one  and  a  half  pairs  of 
4-in.  brass  butts,  with  steel  washers,  and 
fitted  with  a  good  6-in,  mortice  lock.  Good 
bold  brass  handles  and  finger-plates  should 
be  chosen,  and  the  top  portion  of  the  screen 
above  the  transom  should  be  fitted  with 
leaded  fights  glazed  with  tinted  glass  ;  tinted 
and  white  Muranese  glass,  bedded  between 
strips  of  chamois  leather,  being  used  for  the 
door  and  for  the  sidehghts.  Fig.  1709  is  an 
enlarged  section  of  the  architrave. 


Fig.  1707. — Enlarged  Horizontal  Section  of  Framing  of  Hall  Screen. 


Fig,  1708. — Enlarged  Section 
of  Bar  of  Hall  Screen. 


Fig.  1709. — Enlarged  Section 
of  Architrave  of  Hall  Screen. 


Fig.  1710. — Enlarged  Section  through 
Top  Portion  of  Middle  Rail  to  Door. 


wedged  in  the  usual  manner.  The  ends 
should  be  simply  stumped  into  the  central 
mitered  bars,  and  screwed  through  the  re- 
bates. The  fewer  panels  are  moulded  and 
raised  as  shown,  a  indicating  the  outer  jamb, 
B  the  door  jamb,  o  o  the  stiles  of  the  framing, 
p  the  panel  (Fig.  1707).  The  bottom  portion 
of  the  door  is  in  every  particular  identical 
with  the  corresponding  part  of  the  side- 
framing,  and  has  diminished  stiles  (see  Fig. 
1698).  Fig.  1710  shows  an  enlarged  section 
of  the  upper  portion  of  the  middle  rail  of  the 
door  ;  q  indicating  the  rail ;  r  moulding 
with  returned  ends,  sunk  into  and  planted 
on  to  rail,  with  dentils  cut  in  the  bead  s,  and 
fixed  through  the  rail  with  screws  ;  t  mould- 
ing with  returned  ends,  glued  and  planted  on 
to  cover  screws  ;  H  the  shaped  apron  (see 
also  elevation.  Fig.  1704).  Fig.  1708  is  an 
enlarged  section  of  the  bar  to  the  sidelights 
and  the  top  portion  of  the  door.  The 
moulded  fillets  u  should  be  fixed  with  brass 


Corridor  Screen  and  Door. 

The  screen  and  door  shown  in  Figs.  1711 
and  1712  is  suitable  for  a  public  office  or 
building  or  for  a  private  dwelHng.  If  it  is 
used  for  a  dwelling,  stained  and  leaded  glass 
of  good  design  should  be  inserted  ;  but  for 
a  public  building,  the  top  sashes  should  be 
filled  with  quarter-plate  polished  glass,  while 
the  doorhght  and  sidehghts  will  be  of  em- 
bossed glass,  with  a  suitable  design  or  letter- 
ing advertising  the  business  that  is  carried 
on.  Fig.  1711  shows  the  front  view.  The 
height  is  9  ft.  8  in.,  the  width  6  ft.  The 
door  jambs  and  wall  jambs  are  SJ  in.  by 
5  in.,  rebated  for  the  door  and  sidehghts, 
grooved  for  the  raised  panels,  and  ovolo- 
moulded  on  the  front  edges,  and  beaded  on 
the  back  edges.  The  transom  is  7  in.  by 
4  in.,  sunk  double  moulded,  and  rebated  for 
the  top  and  lower  sashes  and  door.  The 
jambs  are  stub-tenoned  to  the  transom, 


526 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


A 


Fig.  1711.  Fig.  1712. 

Fig.  1711.— Front  Elevation  of  Corridor  Screen  and  Door. 
Fig.  1712.— Vertical  Section  of  Corridor  Screen  and  Door. 


and  also  connected  by  short  rails,  which  are  the  jambs,  and  is  double  moulded,  rebated, 

tenoned  and  scribed  to  them,  forming  divi-  beaded,  and  tenoned  to  the  transom  (see 

sions  for  the  side  panels  and  Hghts.    The  Fig.  1713),  and  it  is  connected  to  the  top 

semicircular  frame  is  of  the  same  section  as  rail  with  a  short  muUion,  which  is  mortised, 


PARTITIONS  AND  SCREENS. 


527 


tenoned,  and  scribed  to  both  members.  The  rail.  The  latter  is  secured  to  a  joist  above, 
jambs  above  the  transom  are  stub-tenoned  while  the  wall  jambs  are  fixed  to  wood  or 
to  the  latter,  and  mortised  to  receive  the  top     breeze  bricks  in  the  usual  way.    The  two 


528 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


side  and  three  top  frames'are  If  in.  by  2  in., 
moulded  and  rebated,  and  fitted  with  loose 
beads.  The  door  is  6  ft.  6  in.  high  by 
3  ft.  3  in.  wide.  It  has  diminished  stiles, 
which  are  7  in.  and  5  in.  wide  respectively 
at  top  and  bottom,  by  2  in.  thick.  The 
upper  rail  is  5  in.  wide.  The  top  panel  of 
the  door  is  moulded,  rebated,  and  fitted 
with  shifting  beads,  fixed  with  brass  cups 
and  screws.  The  lock  and  bottom  rails  are 
each  9  in.  wide,  grooved  to  receive  the  raised 
and  moulded  panel,  and  mortised,  tenoned, 
and  wedged  to  the  stiles.    The  shoulders 


apron  is  fixed  to  the  door,  and  capped  with 
a  moulded  rail  with  return  ends,  as  shown. 
Fig.  1713  shows  a  section  taken  on  a  b, 
while  Fig.  1714  represents  a  vertical  section 
taken  through  the  side  panel  and  short  rails, 
showing  the  method  of  construction  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  panel  at  d  (Fig.  1711). 
Figs.  1715  and  1716  respectively  represent 
horizontal  sections  on  e  f  and  G  h,  showing 
in  enlarged  detail  the  sashes,  panels,  etc. 
The  door  is  hinged  on  three  4-in.  brass  butts, 
fitted  with  pull  handles,  brass  mortice  lock, 
and  finger-plates      This  class  of  door  is 


Fig.  1718. — Section  of  Vestibule  Screen  on 
Line  D  D  (Fig.  1722). 


Fig.  1717. — Section  of  Vestibule  Screen  on 
Line  C  C  (Fig.  1722). 


Fig.  1719. — Section  of  Vestibule  Screen  on 
Line  E  E  (Fig.'  1722). 


between  the  middle  rails  and  stiles  are 
diminished  as  illustrated,  and  in  the  case 
of  the  lock  edge  of  the  door  the  middle  rail 
and  stile  are  connected  by  twin  double 
mortices  and  tenons  with  a  solid  haunching 
(as  illustrated  and  explained  in  connection 
with  Fig.  1196,  p.  360),  so  as  to  make 
provision  for  a  mortice  lock,  which  is 
the  kind  that  would  be  likely  to  be 
provided  and  fixed.  A  suitable  moulding 
is  fixed  round  the  panel,  and  a  shaped 


often  hung  with  a  patent  single  or  double 
spring  hinge,  the  former  closing  the  door  by 
its  spring  action  after  opening,  while  the  latter 
allows  of  the  door  being  opened  both  inside 
and  outside,  the  action  of  the  hinge  clos- 
ing it  automatically.  The  material  may  be 
pitchpine  or  red  deal,  sized  and  varnished, 
or  painted  and  grained  oak ;  or,  if  the 
work  is  executed  in  hardwood,  as  teak, 
mahogany,  or  oak,  it  may  be  finished  in  oil 
or  French-polished. 


PARTITIONS  AND  SCREENS. 


529 


Vestibule  Screen. 

The  screen  shown  by  Figs.  1717  to  1724 
is  easily  adaptable  to  any  opening  of  reason- 
able width  and  height.  The  panels  being 
equally  spaced  out,  they  can  be  reduced  or 
extended  in  width  at  pleasure,  the  only  dif- 
ference being  that  the  two  doors  will  neces- 
sarily become  one  only  in  the  case  of  any  ex- 
cessive reduction  taking  place  in  the  width. 
The  height  and  width  shown  in  the  details 
are  10  ft.  4  in.  (or,  adding  a  7-in.  joist  and 
1-in.  flooring  board,  11  ft.)  and  8  ft.  respec- 
tively. The  height,  if  so  required,  could  be 
reduced  either  by  omitting  the  rough  beam 
and  cornice  or  by  shortening  the  fanlight- 
The  tendency  of  vestibule  and  entrance-hall 
screens  being  towards  excessive  height,  a 
subsill  is  introduced  with  the  object  of 
rendering  the  height  less  conspicuous ; 
and  if  a  dado  is  constructed,  it  should 
line  up  as  much  as  possible  with  this  sub- 
sill.  The  screen  will  look  well  if  exe- 
cuted in  oak  or  mahogany ;  but  if  deal  is  the 
material  selected,  it  should  be  painted  rather 
than  stained  and  varnished.  The  frame- 
work is  of  5-in.  by  3J-in.  section,  with  the 
exception  of  the  transom,  which  is  5  in.  by 
4  in.,  and  den  tilled  ;  but  as  these  dentils 
are  rather  expensive  to  cut,  the  transom 
may,  if  cost  is  a  consideration,  be  run 
straight  through.  The  doors,  fanhghts,  and 
sidelights  are  of  2-in.  stuff,  rebated  for  glass, 
and  moulded.  The  circular  sinkings  at  the 
heads  of  the  fanlights  are  f  in.  deep,  cham- 
fered J  in.  down  and  on.  The  doorway  is 
3  ft.  9  in.  wide,  and  fitted  with  a  pair  of 
doors,  which  are  less  unwieldy  than  a  single 
door,  although,  for  ordinary  purposes,  the 
one  door  affords  sufiicient  passage  room. 
The  wall  upright  may  be  of  a  lighter  section 
than  the  other  timber  (the  illustration  shows 
it  5  in.  by  3  in.),  but  this  is  not  absolutely 
essential ;  it  can  either  be  of  the  same  size 
as  the  other  timbers,  and  fixed  directly 
against  the  wall  to  wood  bricks,  or  be  of 
lighter  section,  and  fixed  to  grounds  ;  the 
latter  method  obviates  the  necessity  of 
grooving  for  plaster.  The  wood  panels  are 
raised,  IJ  in.  thick  at  the  centre,  and  re- 
duced to  J  in.  at  the  edges,  the  stiles  and 
rails  being  rebated  to  receive  them  ;  they 
are  secured  in  the  rebates  by  a  moulding 
mitered  round  on  the  inside.    The  upper 

23 


panels  and  fanlight  may  be  glazed  with  leaded 
lights,  or  plain  or  bevelled  plate  glass,  the 
latter  being  the  most  suitable,  owing  to  the 
rather  severe  character  of  the  design.  To 


form  the  cornice,  rough  brackets  are  fixed  at 
intervals  to  receive  the  plaster,  a  suitable 
key  being  formed  on  the  head  of  the  screen 
by  the  bead,  as  shown  in  the  detail.  For 
sections  on  the  fines  indicated  by  lettering 
in  the  usual  way  on  the  elevation  shown  by 
Fig.  1722,  see  Figs.  1717  to  1721. 


CAKPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  1722.— Elevation  of  Vestibule  Screen. 


Fig.  1723. — Sectional  Plan  of  Vestibule  Screen. 


PARTITIONS  AND  SCREENS. 


531 


Vestibule  Framing-  and  Swing  Doors 
for  the  Main   Entrance  of  a  Large 
Building. 

A  more  important  case  of  vestibule 
framing  with  swing  doors  than  either  of 
those  preceding  is  here  illustrated  by  Figs. 
1725  to  1760.  The  framing  is  prepared  and 
fitted  to  an  opening  with  an  elliptical  stone 
arch  springing  from  imposts  as  illustrated. 


with  the  specification  clause  to  the  effect  that 
"  The  material  and  workmanship  must  be  the 
very  best  of  their  respective  lands."  It  is 
almost  superfluous  to  state  that  joinery 
of  this  character  would  be  made  of  hard- 
wood. It  is  necessary,  in  jobs  of  this 
description,  for  the  setter-out  to  give  some 
consideration  to  the  arrangement  of  the 
fitting  together  of  various  parts  where 
carving  is  introduced.    The  carving  is  not, 


Fig.  1724.— Enlarged  Section 
of  Head  of  Vestibule 
Screen. 


The  whole  is  designed  for  the  treatment 
of  a  vestibule,  the  walls  of  which  are  of 
masonry,  there  being  a  plinth  or  skirting  at 
the  bottom,  and  a  surbase,  or  dado  moulding; 
the  next  portion  of  the  wall  finishing  with 
an  intermediate  cornice  and  fascia,  and 
above  this  being  a  frieze  and  a  cornice 
connected  with  the  ceiling  (but  not  shown). 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  main  horizontal 
members  of  the  wood  framing  are  of  similar 
section  to  those  of  the  masonry,  with  which 
some  of  them  intersect.  The  methods  of 
construction  which  will  be  described  and 
illustrated  are  amongst  the  best  adopted 
for  first-class  work,  so  as  to  comply  fully 


of  course,  introduced  as  specimens  of  joinery, 
but  at  the  same  time  it  is  part  of  the  treat- 
ment of  the  whole  design,  forming  the 
ornament  of  panels,  friezes,  etc.  It  falls  to 
the  task  of  the  joiner  to  plough  and  tongue 
and  fit  together  the  various  parts,  and, 
when  these  operations  are  found  satis- 
factory, to  hand  over  to  the  carver  the 
pieces  he  has  to  deal  with,  which  can  be 
afterwards  fixed  in  their  respective  positions 
in  the  piece  of  framing.  It  must  here  be 
noted  that  pieces  of  wood  carved  and 
"  stuck  on  "  are  not  here  illustrated,  nor 
would  they  be  tolerated  for  a  job  of  this 
description.    Of  course  sometimes  the  carver 


532 


CAEPENTEY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  1725. — Perspective  View  of  a  Portion  of  Vestibule  Framing  seen  from  Outside. 


PARTITIONS  AND  SCREENS. 


533 


Fig.  1726, — Outside  Elevation  of  Vestibule  Framing  with  Swing  Doors. 


Fig.  1727.-Half  Horizontal  Section  through  Lower  Pilasters  and  Panels,  and  Half  Horizontal  Section 

through  Upper  Pilasters  and  Glass  Panels. 

would  not  commence  any  of  his  work  until  in  the  form  of  elevations  and  sections  ;  and 

the  ioiner  had  finished,  so  far  as  bench  in  addition,  where  there  are  mouldmgs  and 

work  was  concerned.  similar  members   of   special   design,  tuil- 

Setting  Out.— Usually,  for  important  work,  sized  sections  are  supplied  ;  while  ^^^^,ff 

architects  supply  enlarged  detail  drawings  sketches  for  carvings  are  commonly  provided. 


534 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


From  the  specification  and  the  drawings 
the  rods  would  be  set  out.  Naturally  it 
would  be  well  for  the  actual  opening  to  be 
tested  for  measurement,  in  case  of  any 
discrepancy  having  crept  in.  One  rod 
should  be  set  out,  giving  a  horizontal  section 
at  a  level  through  the  bottom  panels  of  the 
doors  and  lower  pilasters  ;  another  section 
should  be  given  at  a  level  of  the  upper 


cornice  of  pediment,  the  tympanum,  and  the 
horizontal  cornice,  showing  the  relation  of 
this  with  the  pediment,  etc.  Whole  eleva- 
tions, or  at  least  halves,  drawn  full  size, 
and  in  connection  with  the  vertical  sections, 
should  be  set  out  for  the  pediments  at  the 
tops  of  doors,  dado  moulds  and  apron  panels, 
quadrant  corners,  etc.  On  these  should  be 
indicated,  by   coloured   pencils   or  other 


Fig.  1728. — Enlarged  Horizontal  Section  through  Lower  Pilasters  and  Panels. 


pilasters  and  glass  panels  of  doors,  similar 
to  section  Fig.  1727.  It  would  be  very 
convenient  to  have  a  third  horizontal 
section  taken  through  the  frieze.  Probably 
the  best  plan  would  be  to  have  the  rod 
sufEciently  wide,  so  that  these  horizontal 
sections  could  be  side  by  side,  and  thus 
their  relation  to  each  other  be  apparent  at 
a  glance.  The  following  vertical  sections 
would  be  necessary.  The  rod  for  the  vertical 
section  should  show  a  section  taken  through 
the  centre  of  the  pilaster  to  the  top  of  the 
cornice  as  Fig.  1730.  Another  section  should 
be  taken  through  the  centre  of  one  of  the 
swing  doors  and  head  of  frame  as  repre- 
sented at  Fig.  1731.    The  construction  of  the 


means,  the  methods  of  connecting  the 
pediments,  mouldings,  carved  panels,  and 
such  parts,  to  the  stiles  and  rails ;  also  the 
sizes  and  number  of  tenons  connecting  the 
stiles  and  rails. 

The  Frame. — As  will  be  seen,  this  consists 
of  a  head  and  six  jambs,  each  2  J  in.  thick. 
There  being  pilasters  on  each  side,  the 
central  jambs  are  distant  from  each  other 
to  the  extent  of  4  in.,  as  represented  at  A 
(Figs.  1728  and  1729).  Beyond  the  jamb 
at  each  end  is  a  ground  G ;  these  are  fixed 
to  the  masonry.  The  central  jambs  are 
connected  and  stiffened  to  each  other  by 
blocks  screwed  between,  as  represented 
at  A,  B,  and  c  (Figs.  1730  and  1735).  The 


Fig.  1729.— Enlarged  Horizontal  Section  through  Upper  Pilasters  and  Glass  Panels. 


fixed  doors  being  similar  in  many  respects 
to  that  of  the  swing  doors,  it  would  only  be 
necessary  to  show  the  section  taken  through 
the  marginal  bars.  This  of  course  might  be 
done  adjacent  to  the  section  taken  through 
the  swing  doors.  Another  vertical  trans- 
verse section  is  taken  through  the  crown 
of  the  soffit  of  the  arch,  giving  sections 
of  the  head  of  the  frame,  the  fanlight,  the 


jambs  at  each  end  are  also  similarly  con- 
nected to  the  ground  g.  The  central 
jambs  are  hollowed  and  moulded  for  the 
hanging  stiles  of  the  swing  doors.  The 
other  jambs  are  rebated  for  the  fixed  doors, 
and  also  ploughed  to  receive  a  tongued  slip 
A  (Fig.  1729),  which  forms  a  member  of  the 
moulding,  and  keeps  the  fixed  doors  in 
position.    The   angles   of  the   jambs  are 


PARTITIONS  AND  SCREENS. 


Fig.  1730.  Fig.  1731.  Fig.  1732. 


Fig.  1730.— Enlarged  Vertical  Section  through  Centre  of  Pilasters  (Fig.  1725). 
Fig.  1731.— Vertical  Section  through  Centre  of  Swing  Door  (Fig.  1725). 
Fig.  1732. — Enlarged  Detail  of  a  Portion  of  Swing  Door,  Pilaster,  Cornice,  and  Fixed  Door. 


536 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


moulded  and  mitered  so  as  to  intersect  with 
similar  mouldings  stuck  on  the  head,  to 
which  the  jambs  are  connected  by  mortice 
and  tenon  joints  as  illustrated  at  a  (Fig. 
1733).    By  reference  to  Fig.  1726,  and  d,  e, 


clearly  shown  in  the  illustrations.  A  deal 
fillet  F  is  fixed  to  the  head  of  the  frame 
(Fig.  1733)  ;  then  to  this  fillet,  and  the  head 
of  the  frame,  the  moulding  e  is  fixed  by  the 
insertion  of  screws  through  the  fillet  to  the 


Fig.  1733.— Enlarged 
Conventional  Sec- 
tional Detail  show- 
ing Joints  between 
Jambs  and  Head 
and  Construction 
of  Cornice. 


and  F  (Fig.  1732),  it  will  be  noticed  that  the 
angle  mouldings  of  the  jambs  are  stopped 
for  the  purpose  of  leaving  square  surfaces 
for  the  base  and  mouldings  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  pilasters  to  butt  against.  The 
jambs  are  ploughed  to  receive  tongues, 
which  are  inserted  in  corresponding  plough 
grooves  made  in  the  back  of  the  stiles  of  the 
pilasters,  as  represented  in  section  at  Figs. 
1728  and  1729,  and  c,  d  (Fig.  1733).  The 
bottoms  of  the  jambs  are  fixed  to  the  stone 
step  or  floor  by  the  insertion  of  two  copper 
dowels  in  each. 

Cornice. — The  difierent  pieces  of  this, 
and  the  methods  of  connecting  them,  are 


Fig.  1734. — Conventional  View  of  Portion  of 
Cornice  which  Breaks  Forward  over  Pilaster. 

back  of  the  moulding.  The  members  G,  h,  k, 
L,  M,  can  be  screwed  together,  and  the  cornice 
on  each  side  and  the  fascia  connected 
together  by  cutting  cradling  pieces  between, 
and  fixing  these  by  a  few  screws,  and  gluing 
blocks  to  the  cradling  pieces  and  backs  of 
the  members,  as  represented  at  N  and  o 
(Fig.  1733).    In  this  way  the  cornice  could 


PARTITIONS  AND  SCREENS. 


537 


be  built  up  of  three  main  sections,  and  thus 
be  easily  placed  in  position.  Fig.  1734  re- 
presents principally  a  back  view  of  one  of 
the  portions  of  the  cornice  which  breaks 
out  over  the  pilaster.  The  external  angles  a 
are  shown  as  mitered,  glued,  and  blocked  on 
the  inside.  The  intersections  of  the  mould- 
ings at  the  internal  angles  are  shown  as 
scribed,  not  mitered,  although  of  course 
either  method  may  be  adopted. 

Pilasters. — The  lower  pilasters  have  stiles 
and  rails  with  mouldings  stuck  on  the  solid, 
and  are  connected  together  by  stubbed 
mortices  and  tenons.  The  panels  are  sunk 
and  worked  with  a  moulded  splay  as  repre- 
sented in  the  sections.  The  stiles  are 
sufhciently  long  to  run  down  to  the  floor 
so  as  to  allow  of  the  moulded  plinth  with  its 
mitered  returns  being  glued  to  them.  The 
plinth  is  further  secured  to  them  by  the 
insertion  of  a  few  screws  from  the  backs. 
The  mitres  of  the  plinths,  if  not  dovetailed, 
should  be  grooved  and  tongued,  and  of 
course  glued.  The  lower  pilaster  is  fixed 
in  position  by  screwing  on  buttons  at  the 
back  which  have  rebated  ends,  the  tongue 
portions  fitting  into  rebates  or  grooved 
blocks  fixed  between  the  jambs,  as  repre- 
sented at  L  (Figs.  1730  and  1735).  The 
heads  of  the  lower  pilasters  are  fixed  to  a 
block  between  the  jambs  by  a  couple  of 
screws  being  inserted  obHquely,  as  indicated 
at  D  (Fig.  1730).  The  mouldings  at  the  heads 
of  the  lower  pilasters  have  thicknessing 
pieces  fixed  at  the  back  as  shown  at  Fig. 
1730,  and  to  these  buttons  e  are  screwed 
the  tongues  which  fit  into  grooves  made 
in  the  block  b  (Figs.  1730  and  1735).  It 
will  be  noticed  that  these  buttons  are  allowed 
to  project  above  the  thicknessing  pieces  so 
as  to  receive  the  ends  of  the  upper  pilasters 
as  shown  at  e  (Figs.  1730  and  1735).  The 
top  ends  of  the  upper  pilasters  have  blocks 
screwed  to  the  back  of  them  as  indicated, 
and  these  blocks  in  their  turn  are  screwed 
to  the  block  g,  which  is  fixed  between  the 
jambs.  The  carved  capital,  with  its  neck 
moulding,  is  connected  to  the  top  of  the 
pilaster  by  a  couple  of  dowels ;  then  the  top 
of  the  capital  is  secured  to  the  head  of  the 
frame  by  screws  as  indicated  at  h  (Fig. 
1730).  To  prevent  any  vacancy  occurring 
between  the  pilasters  and  the  edges  of  the 


538 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


Fig.  1736.— Joints  between  Stile,  Top  Fig.  1740.— Joints  between  Top  Rail 
Rail,  and  Frieze  Rail  of  Swing  Door.  and  Frieze  Rail  of  Fixed  Door. 


Fig.  1737.— Tympanum  Panel  Pre- 
pared Ready  for  Carving. 


Fig.  1738. — Joints  between  Stile  and 
Middle  Rails,  with  Apron  Prepared 
for  Carving. 


Fig.  1739. — Joint  between  Bottom 
Rail  and  Stile. 


Fig.  1741.— Tympanum  Panel 
Prepared  for  Carving. 


Fig.  1742.— Joints  at  Middle 
of  Door. 


Fig.  1743.— Joint  at  Bottom 
of  Door. 


PARTITIONS  AND  SCREENS. 


539 


Fig.  1744. 


-Rails  Ploughed  Ready  to  Receive 
Fillet  of  Dado  Mould. 


jambs,  these  are  held  securely  by  means  of 
buttons,  as  shown  at  K  (Figs.  1730  and  1735). 

Doors. — In  the  construction  of  these, 
twin  mortices  and  tenons  have  been  adopted. 
At  Fig.  1736  is  shown  the  upper  part  of  the 
stile  of  the  swing  door  mortised  and  haunched, 
with  the  top  rail  and  frieze  rail  tenoned, 
haunched,  and  ploughed  to  receive  the 
tympanum  panel  that  is  shown  at  Fig.  1737, 
and  is  represented  as  rebated  and  tongued 
ready  for  carving.  The  plough  grooves 
A  in  the  frieze  rail  are  for  the  purpose  of 
receiving  the  tongue,  which  is  inserted  in  a 
similar  plough  groove  made  in  the  back  of 
the   egg-and-tongue  moulding  (see  a,  Fig. 


1736),  whereas  the  groove  at  b  is  for  receiving 
a  tongue  that  is  fixed  into  the  back  of  the 
pediment  moulding  (see  b,  Fig.  1736).  At 
c  the  quadrant  corner  is  shown  formed  on 


Fig.  1745.— Dado  Mould  with  Fillet  Screwed  On 
at  Back. 

the  soHd  stile,  and  not  inserted  as  would 
be  the  case  in  more  ordinary  work.  The 
rail  D  is  shown  having  tenons  passing  right 
through  the  stile ;  this  would  undoubtedly 


1747.— Method  of  Framing  Mouldings  by 
Slot  Mortice  and  Tenon  Joint. 


Fig.  1746. — Conventional  Sectional 
Detail  of  Framed  Mouldings  and 
Panel,  showing  Moulding  Saddled 
Over  Stile  and  Rail. 


form  a  better  job  than  stubbing  them  in.  The 
rail  E,  it  will  be  seen,  is  of  thicker  material, 
so  as  to  allow  of  the  apron  (which  is  to  be 
carved)  being  worked  on  the  solid  as  repre- 


540 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


sented.  Both  these  rails  are  ploughed  on 
their  inner  edges  for  the  purpose  of  receiving 
rebated  fillets,  the  tongues  of  which  are 
held  in  these  grooves — the  object  being 
to  fix  the  dado  moulds.  These  fillets  are 
screwed  and  glued  to  the  back  of  the  dado 
moulds,  as  represented  at  A  (Figs.  1731  and 
1744),  and  then  the  framing,  having  been 
put  together,  is  placed  in  position. 

Panels. — These  are  raised,  with  a  small 
scotia  worked  on  the  edge  of  the  raised 
part,  the  margin  of  the  panel  being  worked 
to  the  form  of  a  flat  ogee.  The  inner  side 
of  the  panels  has  a  flat  margin,  with  a  bolder 
moulding  worked  on  the  raised  part,  and  the 


Fig.  1748. — Conventional  Detail  showing  a  Portion 
of  Saddle  Moulding  and  Curved  Bar  for 
Glazing. 

face  is  sunk  as  shown  in  section  at  c  (Fig. 
1731).  The  bolection  mouldings  round  the 
lower  panels  are  solid  through,  so  as  to 
saddle  over  the  edges  of  the  stiles  as  repre- 
sented at  Fig.  1746  The  inner  edges  are 
ploughed  to  receive  the  panels  as  shown 
(Figs.  1746  and  1747).  The  angles  of  the 
mouldings  are  mitered  and  framed  by  slot 
mortices  and  tenons,  as  represented  at  Fig. 
1747.  These  mouldings  would  have  the 
panels  inserted  and  the  joints  glued  be- 
fore being  placed  between  the  stiles  and 
rails.  The  framed  mouldings  are  firmly 
secured  to  the  stiles  and  rails  by  means 
of  dowels,  as  indicated  at  Fig.  1746,  and 
the  holes  for  these  are  represented  in 
the  stiles  and  rails  at  t'igs.  1736  to  1743. 


The  mouldings  round  the  glazed  part  of 
the  doors  may  be  framed  separately  and 
inserted  similarly  to  what  has  been  de- 
scribed for  the  lower  panels ;  or  each  piece 
may  be  fixed  by  gluing  and  dowelHng, 
and  then  the  mitres  fitted  together  and 


Fig.  1749. — Vertical  Section  through  Horizontal 
Cornice,  Centre  of  Pediment,  and  Fanlight. 

treated  almost  in  the  same  manner  as  a 
case  of  solid  moulded  work,  but  probably 
the  former  would  be  found  in  the  end  the 
most  satisfactory  manner.  At  Figs.  1740 
to  1743  are  shown  the  joints  between  the 
stiles  and  rails  of  the  fixed  doors  ;  the  general 
principles  of  construction  are  the  same  as 
has  been  set  forth  for  the  swing  doors,  but 


PARTITIONS  AND  SCREENS. 


541 


of  course  varying  in  details  as  illustrated. 
The  circular-headed  marginal  bars  in  the 
fixed  doors  may  be  cut  and  worked  out  of 
the  solid,  in  which  case  they  would  of  course 
have  to  be  made  of  two  pieces  and  butt- 
jointed,  at  the  crown  or  near  it,  and  springing, 
to  the  vertical  bars.  A  neater  and  stronger 
job  would  be  produced  by  steaming  and 
bending,  in  which  case  a  cylinder  would  have 
to  be  made  and  the  method  adopted  as  ex- 
plained in  connection  with  Fig.  1500,  page 
460.  As  the  bars  are  rather  stout,  it  would 
be  found  necessary  to  joint  up  three  thick- 
nesses over  the  cylinder ;  the  thicknesses 
should  be  so  arranged  that  the  joints  would 
not  fall  in  the  curved  parts  of  the  mouldings, 
but  in  the  fillets  or  square  parts. 

Pediment  and  Fanlight.— At  A  (Fig.  1749) 
is  shown  the  continuation  of  the  section  d 
(Fig.  1731),  which  is  a  section  through  the 
horizontal  cornice ;  above  this  is  shown  the 
section  through  the  centre  of  the  main 
curved  pediment  and  tympanum.  The 
general  construction  is  shown  at  Fig.  1749, 
where  it  will  be  seen  that  the  several  parts 
are  screwed  together  as  far  as  practicable, 
and  further  strengthened  by  cradling  pieces 
being  inserted  and  glued  and  blocked  as 
illustrated.  The  top  is  boarded  as  shown 
by  c,  and  then  a  curved  rail  prepared  in 
two  thicknesses  is  fitted  on  as  shown  in 
section  at  c,  this  forming  the  bottom  rail 
of  the  fanlight.  The  top  rail  of  the  fanlight 
and  head  of  frame  fitting  to  the  soffit  of  the 
stone  arch  are  represented  in  section  at  e, 
where  it  is  shown  the  whole  is  built  up  of 
five  thicknesses.  The  mouldings  d  and  f 
are  worked  out  of  the  solid  in  con- 
venient lengths.  The  curved  bars  being 
of  flat  curvature,  it  will  probably  be  found 
the  most  convenient  method  to  prepare 
these  out  of  the  solid  rather  than  to  bend 
material  for  them.  These  are  mitered  and 
tongued  to  the  short  straight  bars,  and 
then  these  latter  are  connected  to  the 
radial  bars  by  any  of  the  usual  methods. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  enter  fully  into  every 
detail  of  the  construction,  as  the  illustra- 
tions have  been  carefully  prepared  so  as 
to  make  clear  all  the  most  essential 
particulars;  while  the  general  principles 
have  been  sufficiently  expounded  in  other 
sections  of  the  book. 


Hanging:  Swing:  Doors. 

In  hanging  swing  doors  of  the  description 
here  shown,  it  is  essential  to  success  that 
the  doors  shall  be  prepared  accurately  out 
of  winding,  and  that  the  frame  shall  be 
fixed  out  of  winding.  If  these  precautions 
are  carefully  observed,  no  difficulty  will  be 


Fig.  1750. — Shoe,  and  Heel  of  Door  Prepared  to 
Receive  It. 


Fig.  1751.— General  View  of  -Spring  Hinge, 
with  Shoe  Removed. 


experienced  in  getting  the  doors  to  close 
and  meet  in  line.  Only  general  methods 
can  be  given  for  fixing  the  springs,  of 
which  there  are  many  different  kinds  on 
the  market,  each  requiring  more  or  less 
special  treatment.  Printed  instructions  are 
generally  sent  out  with  each  hinge  by  the 
maker,  and  these  of  course  should  be  followed 
as  closely  as  possible.  The  spring  hinges 
are  usually  enclosed  in  a  cast-iron  box 
which  has  projecting  flanges  (see  Fig.  1751), 


542 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


and  to  these  the  brass  plate  is  secured  with 
screws.  The  box  is  sunk  so  that  the  brass 
plate  is  flush  with  the  surface  of  the  floor. 


In  the  instance  of  a  wood  floor,  two  or  three 
floor-boards  are  taken  up,  and  trimming 
pieces  are  fixed  between  the  joists,  and  also 
the  firring  pieces  that  may  be  necessary  at  the 
side  (as  indicated  at  Fig.  1753),  to  support 
the  flanges  or  lugs  of  the  box.  The  box  is 
next  placed  in  the  hole,  and  its  exact 
position  found  in  the  following  manner. 
The  shoe  when  at  rest  (a.  Fig.  1754)  must 
have  its  sides  quite  parallel  to  the  plane  of 


Fig.  1752. — Hole  Cut  in  Masonry  Floor  to  Receive 
Box  of  Spring  Hinge. 


When  the  floor  is  of  stone  or  concrete,  the 
position  and  size  of  the  hole  for  the  box  are 
marked  out  by  the  joiner,  and  then  the  hole 
is  cut  by  a  mason  as  represented  at  Fig.  1752. 


Fig.  1753.— Trimming  and  Firring 
Piece  to  Joists,  etc.,  to  Receive 
Hinge. 


the  jambs,  and  its  centre  Hue  opposite  the 
centre  of  the  hollow  of  the  jamb  as  indicated. 
The  shoes  should  next  be  turned  into  the 
positions  shown  at  b  and  c,  so  as  to  clear 


PARTITIONS  AND  SCREENS. 


543 


the  jambs  when  the  door  is  opened  at  right 
angles,  as  indicated  at  b  and  c  (Fig.  1754). 
The  flanges  or  lugs  should  next  be  screwed 
to  the  trimming  pieces,  then  the  flooring 
made  good  ;  after  which  the  brass  plate 
can  be  applied,  the  flooring  being  marked 
round  from  it  and  then  pared,  while  finally 


Fig.  1756.  The  exact  position  of  the  pivot 
must  be  obtained  from  the  centre  of  the 
movement  of  the  shoe.  In  the  top  of  the 
stud  (on  which  the  shoe  is  fixed)  a  punch 
mark  can  usually  be  seen,  which  indicates 
the  axial  centre.  The  distance  of  this  centre 
marked  from  the  hollow  of  the  frame  gives 
the  exact  distance  of  the 
centre  of  the  pivot  from 
the  hollow  of  the  jamb. 
Care  must  also  be  taken 
to  keep  the  pivot  in  the 
centre  of  the  thickness 
of  the  door  and  the 
hollow  in  the  post.  The 
forms  of  the  pivots  vary 


Fig.  1757. 

Fig.  1755. — Elevation  showing  Heel  of 
Door  and  Side  of  Shoe. 


Fig.  1756. — Pivot  let  into  Head  of  Frame. 
Fig.  1757.— Pivot  Plate  let  into  Door. 

1754. — Plan  of  Spring  Hinge,  showing  Shoe 
in  Three  Positions  to  Clear  Jamb. 


the  brass  plate  is  dropped  in  position  and 
fastened  to  the  iron  flange  with  screws,  as 
shown  at  Fig.  1751.  Where  the  floor  is  of 
stone  or  concrete,  the  iron  box  must  be 
temporarily  fixed  with  a  few  small  hardwood 
wedges,  of  course  in  the  exact  position  it  will 
have  to  occupy,  as  explained  above.  The 
box  is  finally  secured  by  filling  in  the  spaces 
between  the  stone  with  cement.  The  next 
operation  is  to  fit  the  shoe  on  the  bottom 
of  the  door  as  represented  at  Fig.  1750. 
This  will  require  to  be  very  accurately  done, 
especially  in  fitting  the  shaped  sides  of  the 
shoe.  The  shape  may  be  obtained  by  apply- 
ing the  side  of  the  shoes  to  the  side  of  the 
door.  The  pivot  and  plate  can  next  be 
let  in  to  the  head  of  the  frame  as  shown  at 


Fig.  1758.— Head  of  Door 
Recessed  to  Receive  Pivot 
Plate. 


Fig.  1760. 

Figs.  1759  and  1760.— Mode  of  Action  of  a  Pivot 
Plate. 


544 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


according  to  the  different  makers,  but 
are  mostly  constructed  on  the  principle 
that  the  head  of  a  fixed  screw,  when  turned 
with  a  screw-driver,  acts  on  a  plate  to  which 
the  pivot  is  fixed,  which  may  be  raised  or 
lowered  according  to  the  direction  in  which 
the  screw-head  is  turned.  Two  views  of  a 
very  good  form  of  pivot  are  shown  at  Figs. 
1759  and  1760,  from  which  the  action  is 
easily  inferred.  A  plate  to  receive  the 
pivot  has  to  be  let  into  the  head  of  the  stiles 
and  top  rails  as  shown  at  Figs.  1757  and  1758. 


The  exact  position  of  the  plate  is  deter- 
mined by  the  centre  of  the  hole  to  receive 
the  pivot,  as  previously  explained.  Some 
improved  forms  of  pivots  have  an  adjustable 
side  screw,  by  which  the  doors  may  be 
adjusted  sideways,  so  as  to  correct  any  slight 
fault  in  case  of  winding  of  the  doors  or 
frame.  Another  form  of  fitting  provides 
an  arrangement  for  throwing  the  door 
slightly  forward  or  backward  as  may  be 
required.  To  some  forms  of  springs  ad- 
justable arrangements  are  provided  by 
which,  on  taking  up  the  brass  plate,  the 
mechanism  can  be  got  at ;  and,  on  turning 
adjustable  screws  or  studs,  the  shoe  is 
regulated  in  such  a  manner  that  the  doors 
may  always  be  kept  in  one  plane.    This  is 


a  very  useful  arrangement  for  doors  through 
which  there  is  very  much  traffic. 

Sliding  and  Folding  Partitions. 

Figs.  1761  to  1771  illustrate  a  useful  form 
of  folding  and  sliding  partition,  which  has 
been  largely  used  for  dividing  large  rooms, 
and  for  separating  spaces  under  galleries 
from  the  main  part  of  halls,  and  in  other 
similar  positions.  The  general  arrangement 
is  not  so  up-to-date  as  a  number  of  forms 
that  are  the  subjects  of  current  patents. 

I 

\ 


The  special  feature  in  all  these  inventions 
lies  not  in  the  general  construction  of  the 
joiners'  work,  but  in  the  special  mechanism 
introduced  to  produce  lightness  and  accuracy 
in  movement,  so  that  large  openings  may 
be  provided  with  movable  folding  partitions, 
which  can  be  expeditiously  folded  up. 
The  partition  here  illustrated  is  intended 
for  an  opening  of  moderate  dimensions,  and 
for  that  service  is  found  to  work  satisfactorily. 
The  general  arrangement  is  as  follows  : — 
At  least  one  piece  of  framing  is  so  constructed 
as  to  form  a  door  as  represented  at  Fig.  1763, 
where  it  will  be  seen  that  a  rebated  frame  is 
made  to  receive  the  door,  which  is  also 
rebated  to  fit  the  frame  as  shown  in  the 
section  (a  and  b.  Fig.  1764).    This  frame  is 


Fig.  1761. — Horizontal  Section  through  Partition  Partly  Closed. 


Fig.  1762.— Enlarged  Section  through  B  B  (Fig.  1763). 


24 


546 


CAEPENTRY  AND  JOINERY 


held  together  at  the  head  and  transom  in 
the  usual  way,  by  mortice-and-tenon  joints. 
The  other  pieces  of  the  framing  are  of  the 
ordinary  door-like  construction,  with  dimin- 
ished stiles  having  wood  panels  below  and 
mouldings  inserted  ;  the  upper  part  of  each 
frame  being  prepared  for  glass,  having  bars 
with  movable  beads  which  are  fastened  by 
screws.    A  wall  post  or  stile  is  fixed  to  the 


Fig.  1770.— Top  Bracket  Plate 
and  Roller. 


Fig.  1771.— Bottom  Bracket 
Plate  and  Caster. 


Fig.  1769. 


Fig.  1767 


Fig.  1767. — Transverse  Section  through  Channel- 
iron  let  into  Floor,  and  End  View  of  Caster 
and  Bracket  Plate. 

Fig.  1769. — Section  through  Channel-iron  let  into 
Soffit  of  Beam,  and  End  View  of  Bracket 
Plate  aad  Roller. 

wall  at  each  end,  and  either  the  door  end  of 
the  partitioning,  or  the  opposite  end,  may  be 
attached  to  the  wall  stile,  with  large  brass  back 
flap  hinges  as  shown.  Each  piece  of  framing 
is  connected  to  that  next  to  it  also  with 


Fig.  1768. — Longitudinal  Section  through  Channel- 
iron,  and  Side  Elevation  of  Caster  and 
Bracket  Plate. 

back  flap  hinges,  but  these  hinges  have  to 
be  fixed  on  each  side  alternately,  as  illustrated 
at  Fig.  1763,  where  the  hinges  on  the  opposite 
side  are  indicated  by  dotted  lines.  Each 
piece  of  framing  has  one  stile  with  a  tongue 
formed  on  the  solid,  and  the  other  side  with 
a  groove  as  shown  at  Figs.  1761  and  1762. 
To  insure  the  tongues  entering  the  grooves^ 


PARTITIONS  AND  SCREENS. 


547 


Fig.  1773.— Horizontal  Section  on  Line  G  H  (Fig.  1772). 


tlie  former  are  made  tapering  in  section,  as  At  Fig.  1761,  a  plan  is  given  showing  the 
shown  by  the  enlarged  detail,  Fig.  1762.     partitioning  partly  closed.    Figs.  1765  and 


548 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


1 

J 

H 

1 

H 

n, 

\  / 

Fig.  1774.— Elevation  of  Door  and  Pieces  of 
Framing  when  Folded  Back  to  Wall. 


Fig.  1775.— Horizontal  Section  through  K  L 
(Fig.  1774). 


1766  are  respectively  elevation  and  plan. 
Let  into  the  floor  is  an  iron  channel  which 
runs  the  whole  length  of  the  partition.  A 
portion  of  this  is  shown  in  the  plan  (a,  Fig. 
1761  ;  and  b,  Fig.  1766).  An  enlarged 
transverse  section  of  the  channel  is  given 
at  Fig.  1767,  and  at  Fig.  1769  a  portion 
of  the  longitudinal  section  through  the 
channel-iron  is  given.  The  views  will 
make  clear  the  forms  of  bracket  plates  to 
which  the  roller  casters  are  attached.  The 
bracket  plates  are  let  into  the  stile  and 
bottom  edges  of  each  piece  of  framing  as 
shown.  The  body  of  the  caster  can  revolve 
on  pivot  p  (Fig.  1768),  which  passes  through 
the  bottom  of  the  bracket  plate.  A  con- 
ventional view  of  one  of  the  bracket  plates 
and  casters  is  given  at  Fig.  1771.  At  Fig. 
1769  is  given  a  cross  section  through  the 
channel-iron  let  into  a  flitch  beam  to  which 
it  is  fixed  by  screws.  Of  course  in  the  case 
of  an  iron  girder  the  channel-iron  would  be 
bolted  to  it.  An  end  elevation  of  the 
bracket  iron  and  roller  is  also  shown  at 
Fig.  1769.  Fig.  1770  is  a  conventional  view 
of  the  top  bracket  plate  and  roller  complete. 

Sliding  and  Folding-  Partition. 

A  sliding  and  folding  partition  of  modern 
construction,  more  particularly  as  regards 
the  mechanism  (at  the  head  and  feet  of  the 
framing)  to  promote  ease  and  speed  of 
movement,  is  illustrated  by  Figs.  1772  to 
1777.  This  form  of  shding  partition  has 
been  largely  adopted  in  schools,  where, 
during  the  time  of  ordinary  instruction, 
it  divides  a  large  room  or  hall  into  class- 
rooms, and  can  be  quickly  folded  up  when 
the  larger  space  is  required  for  mass  assem- 
blage. The  principal  points  to  note  in  this 
example  are  as  follows  : — Where  a  doorway 
is  provided  as  shown  at  a  (Fig.  1772),  the 
door,  with  a  piece  of  glazed  framing  imme- 
diately above  it,  is  often  hung  to  a  wall 
stile  as  shown  at  b  (Figs.  1772  and  1773). 
The  usual  arrangement  admits  of  the  door 
and  the  glazed  frame  above  it  folding  back 
against  a  wall  as  shown  in  elevation  and  sec- 
tion at  Figs.  1774  and  1775,  where  it  will  be 
noticed  that  the  door  and  framing  above 
project  about  half  their  width  beyond  the 
other  pieces  of  framing.  The  other  parts 
of  the  partition  are  formed  of  pieces  of 


PARTITIONS  AND  SCREENS. 


549 


doorlike  framework,  which  are  centrally 
hung  at  the  top  to  a  carriage  and  wheel 
arrangement,  the  wheels  or  pulleys  having 
hollow  rims,  and  running  on  parallel  rails, 
which  are  supported  by  malleable-iron 
boxlike  hangers,  fixed  to  the  flange  of  a 
rolled-iron  girder  by  means  of  bolts.  These 
hangers  are  fixed  at  intervals  which  vary 
according  to  the  weight  of  the  partitioning 
to  be  supported.  The  bolt  which  passes 
through  the  carriage  has,  at  the  lower  end, 
a  flange  which  is  let  in  and  bolted  to  the 
top  rail  of  the  framing  as  shown  in  section 
at  Fig.  1776.  The  upper  end  of  the  bolt 
passes  through  the  carriage,  and  has  a 
collar  on  it  so  as  completely  to  support  the 
piece  of  framing,  and  at  the  same  time  allow 
the  latter  to  be  turned  round  as  desired. 
Then  immediately  above  this  collar  is  a 
cog  pinion,  which  works  in  a  toothed  rack, 
as  shown  in  section  at  Fig.  1776.  The 
bottom  of  the  framing  is  also  supplied 
with  a  plate,  which  is  let  into  the  bottom 
rail  (having  a  projecting  stud  on  which  a 
pinion  can  revolve),  and  is  in  contact  with 
a  rack ;  while  a  boxlike  channel  similar  to 
that  represented  at  Fig.  1777  is  let  into 
the  floor  as  shown.  The  object  of  the  rack 
and  pinion  is  to  produce  an  equal  movement 
at  the  top  and  bottom,  without  binding, 
which  would  sometimes  occur  if  the  pieces 
of  framing  get  out  of  the  vertical.  Where 
a  door  is  provided,  as  here  illustrated,  the 
pieces  of  framing  are  connected  by  groove- 
and- tongue  joints.  One  advantage  of  this 
centre-hung  system  is  that,  by  connecting 
one  piece  of  framing  to  the  adjacent  pieces 
by  rebated  joints,  it  can  be  used  as  a  door 
as  indicated  at  c  (Fig.  1773),  thus  allowing 
two  spaces  a  little  less  than  half  the  width 
of  a  piece  of  the  framing,  which  is  suflicient. 
for  persons  to  pass  through.  When  this 
method  is  adopted,  it  is  usual  to  provide 
the  two  adjacent  pieces  with  a  flush  bolt, 
as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  at  d  and  e 
(Fig.  1772).  The  piece  of  swing  framing 
is  provided  with  a  brass  mortice  latch,  with 
flush  drop  handles.  There  are  many  other 
systems  of  constructing  sliding  and  folding 
partitions,  many  of  them  protected  by  letters 
patent,  but  the  examples  that  have  been 
given  suffice  to  explain  the  general  principles 
involved. 


Fig.  1776.— Enlarged  Transverse  Section  showing 
Mechanism  for  Hanging  Framing. 


Fig.  1777. — Transverse  Section  through  Box 
Channel,  showing  Mechanism  at  Bottom 
of  Framing. 


BEVELS:   FINDING  AND  SETTING  OUT.  « 


Introduction. — Writers  on  this  subject 
usually  assume  a  considerable  amount  of 
geometrical  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the 
reader,  and  give  "  short-cut "  methods 
without  explaining  the  geometrical  principles 
that  are  involved.  The  principles  and 
methods  employed  in  each  particular  case 
may  possibly  have  been  adopted  after  much 
geometrical  study  and  experimenting  on 
the  part  of  the  writer,  who,  however,  is 
apt  to  forget  that  the  lack  of  such  prelimi- 
nary grounding  may  place  his  readers  at 
a  serious  disadvantage.  A  student,  follow- 
ing the  methods  thus  superficially  described, 
may  obtain  correct  results  for  similar  cases, 
with  little  or  no  geometrical  reasoning  on  his 
part.  Hence,  when  he  is  called  upon  to 
deal  with  more  complicated  cases,  he  finds 
himself  in  difficulties,  as  he  is  unable  to 
adapt  and  apply  principles  that  he  has  never 
really  mastered  ;  because  they  have  only 
been  described  to  him,  not  explained  or 
expounded.  Everyone  who  desires  to  be- 
come proficient  in  setting  out  for  bevels, 
so  as  to  be  able  to  deal  promptly,  decisively, 
and  effectively  with  the  various  cases  that 
arise  in  practice,  must  first  possess  a  clear 
idea  of  the  principles  involved,  and  of  their 
application  to  varying  circumstances.  In 
other  words,  it  is  necessary  for  him  to 
study  a  few  of  the  fundamental  principles 
of  solid  and  descriptive  geometry.  This 
preparation  is  best  obtained  in  a  class 
under  a  competent  teacher  ;  but  where  class- 
work  is  out  of  the  question,  the  necessary 
knowledge  may  be  obtained  from  a  good 
text-book  on  geometry.  Such  study  does 
not  involve  any  very  great  expenditure  of 
time  ;  and  the  principles,  once  mastered, 
are  not  easily  forgotten.  It  is  beyond  the 
scope  of  the  present  work  to  deal  fully  with 
the  subject  of  solid  and  descriptive  geometry ; 
but  several  geometrical  problems,  forming 


the  foundation  of  some  of  the  more  general 
methods  of  setting  out  bevels,  will  be  here 
explained  and  illustrated.  The  direct  appH- 
cation  of  geometrical  principles  to  typical 


Fig.  1779. — Pictorial  View  of  Geometrical  Work- 
ing of  Fig.  1778. 


examples  of  joinery  will  afford  a  useful 
combination  of  theory  and  practice.  Bevels, 
and  some  of  the  geometrical  principles  in- 
volved in  setting  out  as  apphed  to  roofing, 
are  illustrated  and  explained  in  the  section 
on  Roofs,  etc.,  beginning  at  p.  167,  and 
it  will  be  found  an  advantage  to  study,  in 
connection  with  the  present  section,  the 
descriptions  and  illustrations  there  given. 


BEVELS:   FINDING  AND  SETTING  OUT. 


551 


Bevels  for  circle-on-circle  work,  etc.,  have 
also  been  shown,  and  the  methods  of  setting 
them  out  geometrically  explained,  in  con- 
nection with  the  special  subject  to  which 
they  belong. 

Geometrical  Problems  Practically  Applied. 
— Fig.  1778  shows  a  very  useful  geometrical 
problem — namely,  "  Given  an  inclined  plane 
and  the  plan  of  a  hne  in  that  plane,  find  the 
angle  the  line  makes  with  the  horizontal 
trace."  Briefly,  the  working  is  :  At  right 
angles  to  the  h.t.  (horizontal  trace),  draw 


Fig.  1781 


Fig.  1780. 


Fig 


Fig.  1780.— Plan  of  One  Corner  of  Linings 
or  Trough. 

1781.— Method  of  Obtaining  Bevels  for  Case 
shown  at  Fig.  1780. 


X  y  intersecting  it  in  o.  Draw  the  v.t. 
(vertical  trace)  at  the  given  angle  as  shown 
by  the  bevel  c.  Let  a  6  be  the  plan  of  the 
line,  then  a'  V  will  be  its  elevation.  With 
0  as  centre  and  h'  as  radius,  draw  the  arc 
Projecting  from  this,  parallel  to  h.t.,  and 
projecting  out  from  h  parallel  to  x  y, 
point  is  obtained.  Joining  this  to  a 
gives  the  angle  the  Hne  makes  with  Ji.t.  as 
shown  by  the  bevel  d.  Evidently  the 
oblique  plane  with  the  hne  has  been 
rotated  into  the  horizontal  plane.  The 
complete  working  is  shown  pictorially  at 
Fig.  1779. 

Bevels    for    Trough    or    Linings. — Now 

apply  the  foregoing  problem  to  obtaining 


the  bevels  for  the  face  sides  of  splay  linings 
and  troughs,  etc.  A  corner  of  such  an 
example  is  shown  in  plan  at  Fig.  1780. 
Consider  the  inner  surfaces  as  geometrical 
inchned  planes,  and  draw  a  portion  of  these 
surfaces  in  plan  abode  and  /  (Fig.  1781). 
Produce  f  e  to  e\  Consider  it  the  inner 
surface  of  the  inclined  plane  ahef.  Through 
e'  draw  xy  3,t  right  angles  to  /  e\  and  set 
up  the  angle  of  the  inclined  plane  and 


Fig.  1782.— Corner  of 
Linings  or  Trough 
with  Sides  Un- 
equally Inclined. 


Fig.  1783. — Geometrical  Construction  for 
Obtaining  Bevels  for  Fig.  1782. 

height  of  the  trough  as  shown  by  V  c'. 
Then  the  bevel  shown  at  g  will  be  that  re- 
quired for  the  edge  of  the  stufi  that  is  to 
fit  the  edge  of  the  frame  or  bottom  of  the 
trough.  Now  consider  h  e  and  V  e'  as  the 
plan  and  elevation  of  the  given  line  on  the 
inclined  plane.  Using  e'  as  centre,  h'  as 
radius,  point  h'"  is  obtained  as  previously 
explained.  Joining  this  to  e  gives  us  the 
bevel  for  application  to  the  side  of  the  stuff 
for  the  obhque  cut  of  the  end  as  shown  by 
the  bevel  H.  At  Fig.  1782  is  shown  m  plan 
an  object  in  which  the  sides  are  unequally 
inclined  ;  and  at  Fig.  1783  is  shown  the 
geometrical  working.    Two  elevations  are 


552 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


given,  namely,  one  Sit  x  y  and  the  second 
at  y\  each  x  y  being  at  right  angles  to 
a  horizontal  trace.  The  bevel  at  a  is  for 
application  to  the  edge  of  the  piece  of  stuff 
shown  in  plan  at  b,  the  bevel  at  c  being  for 
that  of  the  piece  of  stuff  at  D,  and  the  bevel 
e'f  for  application  to  the  surface  of  the 
stuff. 

Bevels  for  Hexagonal  Hopper. — Fig.  1784 
shows  the  part  plan  of  a  hexagonal  hopper 


Fig.  1784. 


Fig.  1785 


Fig.  1784.— Plan  of  Part  of  Hexagonal  Object 
with  Inclined  Sides  and  Mitered  Angles. 

Fig.  1785. — Geometrical  Construction  to  Obtain 
Bevels  for  Fig.  1784. 

or  similar  article,  the  sides  of  which  are 
inclined  and  mitered  together  as  shown, 
the  edges  being  in  parallel  planes.  The 
method  of  obtaining  the  bevels  about  to 
be  explained  is  also  applicable  to  special 
mitered  linings,  inclined  mitered  fascia 
boards,  and  similar  work.  Set  out  the 
plan  of  two  adjacent  surfaces  as  shown  at 
Fig.  1785 ;  then,  proceeding  as  before, 
take  the  representation  of  the  bottom 
arris  of  one  shown  by  e  j.  Produce  it  to 
any  point  e\  and  make  it  the  horizontal 
trace  of  an  inclined  plane.    Draw  x  y,  and, 


proceeding  as  previously  described,  obtain 
the  bevel  h.  If  the  sides  are  equally  in- 
clined as  shown,  the  bevel  at  k  will  be  the 
same  as  that  at  H.  The  bevel  for  the  edge 
of  the  stuff  is  indicated  by  G.  If  the  edges 
of  the  stufi  are  bevelled  so  as  to  be  in  parallel 
planes,  the  bevel  to  be  apphed  to  the  edge 
of  the  stuff  for  mitering  will  be  as  that 
shown  at  L  (Fig.  1784). 

Bevels  for  Edges  Square  to  Inclined  Sur- 
faces.— Taking  examples  similar  to  those 
already  dealt  with,  but  assuming  that  it 
is  necessary  to  obtain  the  bevel  for  the 


Fig.  1787 

Fig.  1786. 

Fig.  1786.— Mitered  Angles,  and  Top  Edges 
Square. 

Fig.  1787. — Obtaining  Bevel  for  Square  Edge  of 
Fig.  1786. 

mitre,  which  has  to  be  applied  to  an  edge 
that  is  at  right  angles  to  the  surface,  the 
proceedings  will  be  as  explained  below. 
Figs.  1786  and  1787  show  the  part  plan 
and  sectional  elevation  of  one  corner  of 
an  object  mitered  at  the  angles  as  shown. 
Through  a'  draw  x  y,  produce  h'  (Fig. 
1786),  which  gives  e' h'  (Fig.  1787),  the 
vertical  trace.  At  right  angles  to  x  y,  of 
course  parallel  to  a  c  (Fig.  1786),  'draw 
e  h  parallel  to  a  e  h  (Fig.  1786),  project 
up  to  the  vertical  trace,  giving  point  e'. 
With  h'  as  centre,  and  e'  as  radius,  draw  the 
arc  e".  Projecting  down  and  horizontally 
from  e  gives  point  e"\  Joining  this  to  h 
gives  the  bevel  required  for  the  application 


BEVELS:   FINDING  AND  SETTING  OUT. 


553 


to  the  edge  for  mitering  the  stufi.  It  is 
now  obvious  that  the  edge  of  the  stuff  forms 
an  inclined  plane,  and  the  mitre  e  h  the 
plan  and  elevation  of  a  line  in  that  plane. 
By  rotating  the  inclined  plane  and  line  into 
the  horizontal  plane  as  previously  explained, 


reference  to  Fig.  1791,  which  shows  pictori- 
ally  the  principle  of  working,  the  construction 
will  be  plainly  evident. 

Bevels  for  Mitered  Angles  of  Triangular 
Hopper. — At  Fig.  1792  are  shown  the  plan  and 
elevation  of  a  triangular  hopper.  Let  it  be 
required  to  find  the  angle  between  the  two 
surfaces,  and  the  bevel  for  mitering  the 


Fig.  1788 


Fig.  1789. 


Fig.  1790. 


Fig.  1788. — Sides  meeting  at  an  Obtuse  Angle  and  having  Square  Edges. 
Figs.  1789  and  1790. — Alternative  Methods  for  Obtaining  Bevel  for  Mitre  on  Square  Edge. 


the  bevel  is  ascertained.  Fig.  1788  shows 
the  part  plan  and  part  sectional  elevation 
of  a  corner  of  an  object  of  which  the  sides 
form  an  obtuse  angle  and  are  mitered 
together.  The  line  of  the  bottom  arris  a  c 
being  produced  is  considered  as  the  horizontal 
trace  of  a  plane.  Then,  at  any  convenient 
position,  draw  a  line  I  h'  parallel  to  c  a\  and 
work  the  problem  as  shown  at  Fig.  1789  ; 
the  working  being  identical  with  that  ex- 
plained in  connection  with  Figs.  1786  and 
1787.  Sometimes  it  is  very  convenient 
to  imagine  the  inclined  plane  as  being 
brought  into  a  horizontal  position  by  rotat- 
ing it  about  a  level  line  above  the  horizontal 
plane.  It  should  be  carefully  noted  that 
this  line  should  be  taken  parallel  to  the  line 
originally  fixed  on  as  the  horizontal  trace. 
The  method  of  working  is  shown  at  Fig.  1790, 
where  it  will  be  seen  that  e'  hf  is  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  stuff  (and  the  vertical  trace), 
h  ¥  the  horizontal  trace,  g  k  the  level  line 
of  rotation.  Then  imagine  the  line  and 
plane  to  move  into  the  position  shown  by 
elevation  h'\  Projecting  down  from  h" 
and  horizontally  from  h  gives  point  h"' 
and  the  bevel  required  as  shown  at  p.  By 

24* 


Fig.  1791. — Pictorial  View  of  Geometrical 
Working  shown  at  Fig.  1790. 

edges  of  the  stuff.  Draw  ah  (Fig.  1793) 
parallel  to  the  intersection  a  h  (Fig.  1792). 
Then  at  Fig.  1793  complete  the  outline  plan 
of  the  corner  by  drawing  a  d,  a  e.  Draw  x  y 
parallel  to  a  h.  Project  up  from  a,  and 
mark  off  a'  from  x  y  equal  to  d'  from  x  y 
(Fig.  1792).  Then  draw  the  outline  of  the 
top  edge  as  shown  by  a'  c'  (Fig.  1793). 
From  any  convenient  point  in  a'  h'  set  out 
a  line  at  right  angles  meeting  a'  c!  in  c' . 
Now  imagine  this  line  g'  f  to  represent  a 


554 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


plane  at  right  angles  to  a'  h' ;  projecting 
down  from  g\  it  will  be  clear  that  this  plane 
will  cut  the  top  arrises  of  the  surfaces  as 
shown  in  plan  at  d  and  e,  and  the  portion  of 


Now  draw  b'  b  parallel  to  the  lines  in  the 
plan,  as  shown,  and  c  b  parallel  to  a'  b'  ; 
then  join  b  to  a.  It  should  be  noted  that 
this  work  is  identical  with  that  explained 


Fig.  1792. — Plan  and  Elevation 

of  Triangular  Hopper. 
Fig.     1793. — Obtaining  Angle 
between    Two    Surfaces    and  ^ 
Bevel  for  Mitered  Edges. 


Fig.  1793 


the  plane  fitting  between  the  two  surfaces 
from  d  and  e  will  be  triangular  in  shape. 
An  edge  view  of  this  triangular  portion 
of  plane  is  represented  by  c'  /.  Now 
imagine  this  triangular  plane  rotated  about 
the  line  d  e  until  it  is  in  a  horizontal  position. 
The  apex  shown  at  /  in  elevation  would 
move  to  the  point  g\  and  thus  projecting 
down  from  g'  to  the  intersection  line  a  h 
obtains  point  g  ;  then  joining  g  to  d  and  to 
e  gives  the  angle  between  the  surfaces  as 
shown  by  the  bevel.  Half  the  angle  as 
indicated  by  the  bevel  dotted  at  a  will  give 
the  bevel  for  application  to  the  mitered 
edge.  The  geometrical  problem  here  intro- 
duced is  thus  stated  :  "  Given  two  inclined 
planes  and  their  intersection,  determine  the 
angle  between  them."  This  is  known  as 
the  dihedral  angle. 

Setting"  Out  Mitre  Lines  on 
Mouldings. 

Assume  that  two  pieces  of  cornice  moulding 
are  to  be  joined  at  right  angles  ;  that  is,  an 
angle  of  90°.  Let  the  section  of  the  mould- 
ing be  as  shown  in  Fig.  1794.  Draw  the  plan 
of  the  mouldings  and  mitre  as  at  Fig.  1795. 
Then  set  a  bevel  to  the  mitre  line  c  d.  This 
will  be  the  bevel  to  apply  to  the  top  edge,  as 
indicated  by  the  line  c  d  (Fig.  1796).  For 
the  bevel  for  the  sloping  back,  through  the 
angle  at  a'  (Fig.  1794)  draw  a'  b\  With  a' 
as  centre  and     as  radius,  draw  the  arc  c'  b'. 


Fig.  1792 


Fig.  1794, 


Fig.  1795, 


Figs.  1794  and  1795.— Section  and  Plan  of 
Portion  of  Mitered  Cornice,  and  Geometrical 
Construction  for  Mitre. 


BEVELS:   FINDING  AND  SETTING  OUT. 


655 


angle.  If  there  are  several  mitres  to  be 
made,  and  all  meet  at  the  same  angle,  a 
simpler  plan  is  to  construct  a  mitre  box 
which  will  hold  the  moulding  to  the  exact 
angle,  as  shown  at  Fig.  1797,  and  the  mitres 
can  be  cut  in  the  usual  manner. 

Setting"  Out  Mitre  Lines. 

When  setting  out  a  mitre  block  for  mould- 
ings meeting  at  right  angles  as  shown  at  A 
(Fig.  1798),  it  is  only  necessary  to  draw  a 
square  on  the  top  block  as  shown  at  A  B  c  d 
(Fig.  1799),  and  then  the  diagonal  a  c  is  the 


Fig.  1796. — Mitered  Lines  Drawn  on  Moulding. 


Fig.  1797.- 


-Moulding  in  Mitre  Box  Ready  for 
Cutting. 


in  connection  with  Fig.  1781.  Set  the 
bevel  as  indicated,  and  apply  it  to  the 
sloping  back  of  the  moulding  and  mark 
it.    This  will  give  a  line  as  indicated  by 


Fig.  1799. 


-Setting  Out  for  the  Cuts  on  a 
Square  Mitre  Block. 


A  c  (Fig.  1796).  As  a'  is  a  vertical  sur- 
face, the  line  a  e  indicated  at  Fig.  1796 
can  be  drawn  square.  This  principle  can 
be  applied  for  mouldings  meeting  at  any 


Fig.  1798. — Setting  Out  the  Angles  for  Obtuse 
and  Acute  Angles  of  Panel  Mouldings. 


556, 


CARPENTHY  AND  JOINERY. 


mitre  line.  When  the  mouldings  meet  at 
an  obtuse  or  acute  angle,  as  b  or  c  (Fig.  1798), 
the  better  plan  is  to  set  out  the  mitre  on  a 
piece  of  board,  as  at  Fig.  1800.  Smooth 
up  a  board  and  shoot  the  edge,  then  gauge 
a  Une  about  J  in.  (say)  away  from  the  edge 
and  set  out  the  required  angle,  as  indicated 
at  F  H  G  ;  now  bisect  this  angle,  and  then 
H  K  is  the  mitre  line.  A  bevel  should  now  be 
set  to  the  mitre  line  (see  Fig.  1800),  and  then 
appUed  to  the  mitre  block,  as  illustrated  at 
Fig.  1801. 


E 

0 
0 

(I) 

Fig.  1800.— Setting  Out  Angles  for  Mitres. 


angle  of  the  wall.  Draw  a  line  parallel  to  it, 
corresponding  to  h  f,  intersecting  it  at  h. 
Join  a  h,  which  is  the  plan  of  the  mitre  line. 
Fig.  1802  shows  the  elevation  and  plan.  The 
elevation  of  the  point  b'  is,  of  course,  found 
by  projecting  up  from  h  to  the  line  c', 
drawn  through  the  section  of  the  moulding 
parallel  to  a'  d\  From  a'  draw  a'  &  at  right 
angles  to  6'  ;  a'  h'  g'  is  the  elevation  of  the 
right-angled  triangle,  h  c,  being  parallel 
to  the  vertical  plane,  is  seen  in  true  length 
in  the  elevation.  '  a  c  is  equal  to  the  width 
of  the  upper  surface  of  the  moulding,  and 
is  seen  in  the  section  ;  with  these  lines  the 


Fig.  1802.— Elevation  and  Plan  of  Moulding  to 
an  Oblique  Angle. 
Fig.  1803.— Elevation  of  Return  Mould. 


Fig.  I80l.-Setting  Out  Block  for  Obtuse  Mitres.  triangle  can  be  drawn.    The  other  bevel 

for  the  cut  will  obviously  be  the  angle 
Mitre  of  Moulding  on  Oblique  Corner.  ^     rj.^   ^^^^-^^  l^^^^jg   fo^.  ^^iq 

To  draw  the  elevation  and  plan  of  a  return  piece,  draw  the  elevation  shown  in 

moulding  mitre  round  an  oblique  angle  of  a  Fig.  1803,  where  a'  h  is  the  corner  of  the  wall, 

wall,  and,  inclined  on  both  walls  (Fig.  1802),  a'  r  the  slope  of  the  moulding,   a'  6' will  be 

draw  a'  e,  the  elevation  of  the  corner  of  the  equal  to  a'  V  (Fig.  1802),  and  can  be  drawn 

wall.    From  a'  draw  a'  df  at  the  slant  of  the  by  projecting  lines  across.    Draw  h'  I  parallel 

moulding  on  one  wall.    Draw  df  f  at  right  to  a'  r.    Draw  the  section  of  the  moulding 

angles  to  d'  a' .    On  d'  f  draw  the  section  of  r  ml,  making  m  I  equal  to  the  thickness  of 

the  moulding.    Draw  a  d  the  plan  of  the  the  front  moulding,  and  r  m  at  right  angles 

face  of  wall,  and  b  f  parallel  to  it  at  a  distance  to  a'  r.    From  a'  draw  a'  c  at  right  angles 

equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  moulding,  to  b  I.    Produce  c  a'  to  a,  make  c  a  equal  to 

From  a  draw  a  line  at  an  angle  equal  to  the  r  I,  join  a  b\    a  6'  c  is  the  angle  required. 


INDEX. 


{Illustrated  subjects  are  denoted  by  asterislis.') 


A 


Abrading  Tools,  -22-24 
Adze  Heads,  ''20 
Adze-eye  Hammer,  *18 
Alburnum  or  Sapwood,  26 
American  Brace,  *21 

  Elm,  47 

  Oak,  48 

  Red  Pine,  47 

  White  Spruce,  47 

  Yellow  Pine,  47 

Anderson's  Expanding  Bits,  *21, 
22 

Angle  Halved  Joints,  *54 

  Joints,  Obtuse,  *61 

 ,  Right,  =''61 

  or  Returned  Bead  Moulding, 

*468 

Angle-posts  in  Half  Timber  "Work, 
*201 

Annual  Rings  in  Timber,  42 
Apron,  Carved,  for  Door,  *397 
Apse  End  of  Collar  Beam  Roof 

Truss,  *143 
Arcade,  Shoring,  *243 
Arch,  Camber  or  Straight,  *252, 

253 

 ,  Cambered,  Setting  Out  Curve 

for,  *252 

  Centering,  *250-288 

 Barrel  Vaulting,  =^270-272 

 ,  Cambered,  *252 

 ,  Circle-on-Circle,  *257,  262 

 .Elliptical,  *253-255,  *257 

 for     Elliptical  Niche, 

*281-284 

 Stone  Arch, 

*273 

 .Gothic,  *266 

 .  Gothic-on-circle,  *264,  265 

 ,  Groin     Vaulting,  *284- 

286 

 ,  Hemispherical  Dome, 

*286-288 

 :  Obtaining    Radius  of 

Segment  of  Circle,  *251 

 for  Opening  with  Re- 
veals, *262-264 

 ,  Segmental,  *250,  *257 

 :  Segmental  Bridge,  *2VZ, 

273 

 for     Segmental  Stone 

Arch,  *277-279 

 ,  Semicircular,  *255,  256 

 for  Skew  Arch  Bridge. 

*280.  281 

 Stone     Arch  and 

Brick  Back  Arch,  *266 

 ,  Straight,  *253 

 Suggested  by  Tredgold, 

*277 

 for  Tunnel,  *279,  280 

  Curves,  Formula  for,  250 


Arch.     Elliptical,     Setting  Out 

Curves  for.  -253.  255 
 ,  Oval,  *253 

 ,  Railway,  Shoring  to,  *247-249 

 ,  Segmental,    Centering  for. 

-257,  277-279 

 .  .Setting  Out.  *250 

 ,  Semicircular,  Centerings  for, 

*255,  256 

  Soffit,  Development  of,  *259 

 ,  Stone,  Centering  for,  *266 

 ,  Straight,  *253 

 ,  Trimmer  Supporting,  *72 

Arched   Ceiling,    Mansard  Roof 

Over  Room  with,  -142..  143 
Architrave     Moulding,  Double 

Face,  ^468 
Architraves,  Door.  *335,  *386-388 
Arkansas  Oilstones,  23.  24 
Asbestos    Slabs    under  Wooden 

Floor,  -91,  92 
Astragal  Moulding   and  Fillets, 

*468 
Auger,  *22 

  Bits,  Forstner.  *22 

Awl,  Marking,  -3 
Axes,  *19 


B 


Baize-covered  Doors,  *377-379 
Balk,  Defined,  35 

  Timber,  29 

 ,  Defects  in,  *40,  41 

 ,  Lining,  *38 

Balks,  Norwegian.  45 
Baltic  Flooring,  Laying,  89 

  Oak,  48 

  White  Deal,  43,  44 

  Yellow  Deal,  43 

Barefaced  Tenons,  *319 
Bargeboards,  -210.  *212-214 
Barrel  Vaulting.  Centering  for, 

*270-272 
Basement  Floors,  *68,  69 

 ,  Wood-block,  *93-97 

Battened    Square-framed  Door, 

*333,  335 
Battens,  43 

 .Defined,  35 

Bay  Dormer  Window,  *186 

Baywood.  50,  51 

Bead  Architrave  Moulding.  *468 

  Mouldings,  *468 

  Planes,  *14 

Beaded  Stops  for  Doors.  *318 

557 


Beads,  Guard,  for  Sash  Frame, 

=^'467 

 ,  Removing,       from  Sash 

Frames,  423 
  for     Solid     Mullion  Sash 

Frames,  *436 
Beams,    Cutting    Stiffest,  from 

Round  liOg,  -38 
 ,          Strongest,  from  Round 

Log>  *37 

 ,  Floors  with  Trussed,  *80,  81 

 ,  Jointing,     to     Posts  and 

Struts,  *61 

 ,  Joints  for,  *57-61 

 ,  Strength  of,  *39,  40 

  Trussed  with  Tension  Rod, 

*81 

Belfast  Roof  Truss.  *154.  158 
Belidor's  System  of  Setting  Out 

Mansard  Roof,  *134 
Bench  Holdfast.  -9 

 .  "  Knock-up,"  *8 

  Screws,  *7,  8 

  Stops,  *8.  9 

Benches,  ''5-9 

Bethell's  Process  of  Preserving 
Timber.  34 

Bevel,  *3 

 .Sliding,  *3 

Bevelled  Halving  Joints,  *55 

Bevels  for  Edges  Square  to  In- 
clined Surfaces.  -552,  553 

 ,  Finding    and    Setting  Out, 

*550-556 

 :  Geometrical  Problems  Prac- 
tically Applied,  *551 

  for  Hexagonal  Hopper,  *552 

 Hips.  n70,  171,  n73,  175 

 Jack  Rafters,  -168,  169 

 Mitered  Angles  of  Tri- 
angular Hopper.  *552 

 :  Mitre   Lines,    Setting  Out, 

*554-556 

- — :  Mouldings,  Mitre  Lines  on, 

*554,  *555 

 Purlins.  n71.  173 

 Rafters,  *166-175 

  for  Trough  or  Linings,  *551, 

552 

Binder,  Floor.  Determining  Size 
■of,  84.  85 

 Chase-mortised    for  Ceiling 

Joists,  *74 
 for  Double  Floors,  Iron,  *75, 

77 

   ■  ,  Steel.  *77.  78 

 ■  ,  Wooden,  *74,  75 

 ,  Wrought,  Floor  with,  *74 

Bird's-mouthed  Joints.  *55.  56 

 ,  Shouldered   Joint.  Tenoned 

and,  *61 

Bitch  for  Builder's  Gantry,  *216 
Bits,  Anderson's,  ''21,  22 

 ,  Centre,  *1.  22 

 ,  Expanding,  -21 


558 


INDEX. 


Bits,  Expanding  Centre,  *21 

 ,  Forstner  Auger,  *22 

 ,  Nose,  21 

 ,  Pin,  21 

 ,  Spoon.  21 

 ,  Twist-nose,  *21 

Bitumen  for  Laying  Wood  block 

Floor,  94 
Blockings,  Glued,  *63 
Boarded  Roof,  Circular,  *159 
Boarding  for  Framed  and  Braced 

Door,  *319 
Boards,    Cutting,    from  Square 

Log,  *481 

 ,  Floor  (See  Floor  Boards) 

 -,  Shooting,  *4 

Bolection  Moulding,  *363,  *468 

 ,  Working,  *472 

Boring  Jambs  for  Draw-pinning, 

*314 

  Tools,  *20-22 

Bouchere's  Process  of  Preserving 

Timber,  34 
Bow  Saw,  *17 

Bowstring  Roof  Truss.  *154,  158 
Boxing    Shutters    to  Doorway, 

Panelled  linings  to,  *516-519 
 ,  French  Casements  with, 

*449-458 
Box  Pin  Joint,  *62,  64 
Brace  and  Bits,  *21,  22 

  Screwdrivers,  20 

Brace  and  Post  Joint,  *61 
Braced  and  Framed  Door  and 

Frame,  *318-323 
 Doors,  Hanging, 

320 

 Sliding  Door,  *326 

  Trussed  Partitions,  *98- 

110 

Bradawls,  *20 
Brads,  24 

 ,  Floor,  *90 

Brands,  Timber,  52 
Brick-nogged  Partitions,  *98 
Bridge,  Skew  Arch,  Centering  for, 
*280,  281 

Bridging  Joist,  Determining  Size 
of,  83,  84 

Bridle  Joints,  *55 

Builder's  Staging,  *219,  220 

Bull's-eye  Frame,  Circular,  *461 

Burnett's  Timber  Preserving  Pro- 
cesses, 34.  35,  42 

Butt  End,  Raking  Scarf  with,  *57 

— a-  Joint,  Edge,  *62 

 ,  Pished,  *59 

 with  Flush  Beads,  *63 

 ,  Mitered,  *56 

 ,  Plain,  -62 

 ,  Rebated,  *62 

 ,  Tongued,  *62 

■        and  Tenoned  Joint,  Mitered, 

*61 


C 


Cabinet  Screwdrivers,  20 
Callipers,  *3,  4 
Cambered     Arch,     Setting  Out 

Curve  for,  *252 
Cambering  Tie-beam,  133 
Canada  Oilstones,  24 
Carved  Apron  for  Door,  *397 
Casement  Frame,  Solid,  Joiners' 

Rods  for,  *296,  297 
  Windows,  French,   to  Open 

Inwards,  *443-446 
 .Small,  *430,  431 


Casement     Windows,  Old-style, 

*428-430 
Casements,  ''=404 

  and     Fanlight      in  Solid 

Frame,  -446-449 

 ,  French  {See  French  Case- 
ments) 

Cavetto  Quirked  Ogee  Moulding, 

*468 

Ceiling,   Arched,  Mansard  Roof 

for,  *142,  143 
  Joists,    Binder  Chased-mor- 

tised  for,  -74 
Centering  for    Barrel  Vaulting, 

*270-272 

 Circle-on-circle  Arches, 

*257-262 

 with  Parallel 

Jambs  and  Reveals,  *257-259 
 Radial 

Jambs,  *259-262 
 Elliptical   Arches,  *257, 

*273,  277 

 Window,  *257 

 Gothic  Arch  to  Arcade 

of  Church,  *266-268 
 Gothic-on-circle  Arch, 

*264 

 Groin  Vaulting,  *284-286 

 Hemispherical  Dome, 

*286-288 

 Opening   with  Reveals, 

*262-264 

 Segmental  Arches,  *257 

 Bridge,  *272-273 

 Semicircular  Arches, 

*255-257 

 Stone  Arch   and  Brick 

Back  Arch,  *266 
"  Chalk  Line,"  3 
Charnley  Forest  Oilstones,  23 
Chase  Mortice  Joints,  -55,  56 
Cheuuer  Wood-block  Floor,  *96 
Chestnut,  48,  49 
 ,  Spanish,  48 

Chimneys,  Ridges  and  Purlins 
Trimmed  to,  *165,  *166 

Chisels,  Firmer,  *11 

 ,  Mortice,  *11 

Church  Arcade,  Shoring,  *243-247 

  Roof.  *144,  *147,  148 

Circle,  Obtaining  Radius  of  Seg- 
ment of,  *251 

Circle-on-circle  Arch,  Centres  for, 
*257-262 

 with  Parallel  Jambs  and 

Reveals,  Centre  for,  *257-259 

 Radial  Jambs, 

Centre  for,  -259-262 

 Doors  {see  Doors) 

  Sash  Frames,  *463-467 

Circular  Bull's-eye  Sash  Frame, 
*461 

  Doors  {see  Doors) 

  Roof  Truss,  *159 

  Work,  Cramps  for,  *11 

Cogging  Joints,  -55 
Collar  Beam,  117 

 Roof,  -143,  144 

 ,  Joints  for,  *143,  146 

  Braces,    Span    Roof  with, 

m6 

—  Roof,  Span  (see  Span) 
Collars    for    Supporting  Arches 

during  Shoring,  *246 
Compasses,  *3 
Compass  Planes,  14 
Composite  Doors,  *375-377 

 ,  Panels  for,  *377 

 Trusses,  *149-154 

  Truss  for  Flat  Roof,  *153,  154 

Compression   and    Cross  Strain, 

Joints  for,  *57,  58 
Cone,    Elliptical,    Frustum  of, 

M97 

Converting  Oak,  35 

  Pitchpine,  *35 

  Timber,  *35,  36 


Cords,  Attaching,  to  Sash  Frame, 

*423  424 

  for  Sash  Frame,  *423,  424 

 ,  Removing,  from  Sash  Frame, 

==423,  424 

Cornice,     Enriched,     and  Wall 

Panelling,  *508-516 
  Mouldings,    Working,  *473, 

474 

  for  Vestibule  Framing,  *536 

Corridor  Screen  and  Door.  *525- 
528 

Cottage.  Half-timbered,  *202-204 
Couple-close  Roof,  -117,  118 
Cramping  Floor  Boards,  *89,  90 

 Sash  Frame,  *421,  422 

Cramps,  -9-11 

  for  Circular  Work,  *11 

 ,  G,  *9 

 .Iron  G,  *9 

  for  Sash  Frames,  *421 

 Wedge,  *9 

  for  Wedging  Up  Door,  *331 

Crenellated  Square,  3 
Creosoting  Timber,  42 
Cross-halved  Joints,  *54 
Cross-strain,  Joints  for,  *57 
Cupboard  Front,  Rods  for,  *303- 
306 

■  ,  Portable,  Rods  for,  *310,  311 

Cup-shakes  in  Timber,  *40 

Cup  Wood  Screw^s,  *25 

Curves,  Arch,  Formula  for,  250 

  for  Cambered  Arches,  Setting 

Out,  *252 

 Elliptical  Arches,  Set- 
ting Out,  *253-255 

 Large  Arches  of  Mode- 
rate Rise,  Setting  Out,  *251, 
252 

 ,  Setting    Out,    with  Radius 

Rod,  *251 
Cutting  Gauges,  *3 

 for  Mouldings,  *471 

Cyma  Recta  Moulding,  *468 


D 


Dado,  Hardwood,  Fixing,  *491-493 

  Sham  Framing,  *486-490 

Dantzic  Timber  Quality  Marks, 

*44 

Deals,  35,  43 

 ,  Baltic  White,  43,  44 

 ,          Yellow  or  Red,  43 

 ,  Norwegian,  45 

 .Red  or  Yellow,  44 

 ,  Russian  White,  46 

 ,  Swedish,  45 

 ,  ,  Quality    Marks  on  *44, 

45 

Derrick  for  Raising  Roof  Prin- 
cipal, 145 

  Tower  Gantry,  *221,  222 

Diminishing  Mouldings,  *475,  476 
Divided  Tenon  Joints,  *55 
Dividers,  *3,  4 
Doatiness  in  Timber,  41 
Dock  Gates,  Timber  for,  51 
Dog  for  Builders'  Gantry,  *216 

 ,  Joiners',  *9,  10 

Dome,  Centering  for  Hemisphe- 
rical, *286-288 
Donkey's-ear  Shooting  Block,  *4 
Door  Architraves,  *335,  *386,  388 

  in  Corridor  Screen,  *525 

 ,  Baize-covered,  *377-379 

 ,  Battened    Square  -  framed. 

*333,  335 


INDEX. 


559 


Door,  Bead  Flush  Panel  to,  *351, 
356 

  Beaded  Stops  for,  '318 

 ,  Boarding   for  Framed  and 

Braced,  *319 
 ,  Bolection    Moulded  Panels 

for,  *357,  358 
 Casings,    Hardwood,  Fixing, 

*504-506 

 ,  Circle-on-circle,  *397-403 

 Swing,    with  Fanlight, 

*401-403 

 .Circular,  *379-381 

 ,  ,  Panels  of,  ='381 

 with  Circular  Frame,  Archi- 
traves for,  -2>86,  388 

 ,  Double  -  mar- 
gin, *381-390 

- —  ,  Frame  d 

Grounds  for,  *386 

 ,  Frame  for, 

*384-386 

 — -,  Rod  for,  *381- 

384 

 ,  Splayed  Lin- 
ings for,  386 

 .  Circular,  on  Plan  Entrance, 

*390-397 

 ,  Face  and  Soffit 

Moulds  for,  *392,  393 

 ,  Mouldings  for, 

^393,  395 

Cleaning  off,  331,  332 
Composite,  *375-377 

 ,  Panels  for,  *377 

Double-margin,  *373-375 
with  Fanlight,  *346-349 
Four-panelled,  *333,  335 

 .Hanging.  *337-340 

  Moulded,   -335,  *342-346 

 ,  Jamb    Linings  of. 

^335.  342 
-.          Outer.  *346-349 

-  Frame.  Circle-on-circle,  *398, 
399 

 ,  ,  x\8certaining  Plan 

Curves  of,  *398 

-  Frame,  Swing,  *535 
Framed.  *335 

  and  Braced,  *318-323 

 ,  Hanging,  320 

 .Making,  *319 

 ,  Jamb  Linings  of,  *342- 

344 

-,  Frameless  Stable,  *324-325 

-  Frames,  ='312 

 ,  Fixing.  314 

 ■  in    Half-timber  Work. 

*202 

-  in  Hall  Screen,  *523 

 ,  Joinery  of,  326-332 

 .  Ledged.  *312 

 ,Eebating,  *318,  319 

-  and  Framing.  Gluing  and 
Wedging-up.  -'331 

-.  Front-entrance.  *365-373 

-.  ,  and  Frame,  *365-373 

-.  .  Mortising  and  Tenoning 

Frame  of,  369 

-,  .  Moulding  Frame  of.  *369 

-,  ,  Panels  of,  *372,  373 

-,  ,  Rebating  Frame  of,  369 

-,  ,  Setting  Out,  *368,  369 

-,  Haunching  Rail  of,  *372 

-  Hinges.  Fixing.  *339.  340 

-  Jamb  Linings,  *335,  336,  *342, 
*346 

Joiners'  Rods  for,  ■=289-293 
Joints  for  Boarding  for,  *319 
Large  Framed  and  Braced 
Sliding.  -326 
Ledged,  ='312-318 

  and  Braced,  =^316-318 

 ,  ='Hanging,  316 

 ,  Joints  for,  =''316 

 ,  Preparing,  =*315,  316 

Main  Entrance,  =^531 
Measuring  for.  370 


Door,  Mitering  Bead  of,  =^317 
 ,  Mortice   and    Tenon  Joints 

for.  -328-330.  372 

 Mouldings.  ='=362 

 ,  Planting,  332,  333 

 .Movable  Shutter.  ="351-357 

 Muntins,  Setting  Out,  ='352 

 ,  Shoulder  Lines  on,  ='327, 

328 

 ,  Oak  Sill  for,  317 

 ,  Outer,  ='346-349 

 ,  ,  with  Movable  Shutter, 

*351-357 

 ,  ,  Splayed  Linings  to,  =*=346 

  Panels,   Bolection  Moulded, 

='357,  358 

 ,  Composite,  ='377 

 ,  Inserting  Strip  in  Split, 

='341,  342 

 .  Mulleting.  *331 

 .  Repairing,  ='340-342 

 ,  Replacing,  ='342 

 ■   ,  Split,    Repairing,  *340, 

341 

  Rails,  Scribing,  ='372 

 Setting  Out,  ='328,  ='354 

 ,  Shoulders  on  Stiles  and  Rails 

of,  ='352-355 

  Shutter,  Making,  ='356,  357 

 ,  Six-panelled.  ='346 

 .  .  Jamb  Linings  for.  *346 

 ,  Sliding  Framed  and  Braced, 

"326 

  with  Solid  Frame,  in  Parti- 
tion Wall,  ='333,  335 

 ,  Splayed  Linings  to,  ="346 

 ,  Stable.  ='324,  325 

  Stiles,  Setting  Out,  ='327.  =^352 

  Stops,  ='318 

— — .  Swing  and  Vestibule  Fram- 
ing, ='531 

 ,  Swinging,    Hanging,  =^541-544 

 ,  ,  Pivot  for,  ='544 

 ,  ,  Spring  Hinge  for,  =^541 

■  ,  Tenon  Joints  for,  ='318.  319 

 ,  Timber  for,  51 

 ,  Two-panelled,  ='357-363 

 ,  .Frame  for,  ='359 

 ,  ,  Panel  of,  ="363 

 ,  ,  Setting  Out,  ='361 

 ,  ,  Splayed     Linings  for, 

='360,  361 

 ,  ,  Wedging  Up,  ===331 

■        for  Vestibule  Framing,  =*539 

Doors,  Varieties  of  Common,  =*312 
Doorway    Linings.   Framed  and 

Panelled,  ='516-519 
Doorways,  Panelled  Linings  for, 
='363-365 

 ,  Skeleton  Jambs  for,  364 

 ,  Two,    Braced    and  Trussed 

Partitions  for,  ='98 
Dormer,  Gabled,  ='182-184 
  in  Half  Mansard  with  Flat 

Roof,  ='197.  198 
 ■           Mansard    Roof  Truss. 

='134.  136 

  Windows.  ='180-198 

 ,  Bay,  ='186 

 .  Framework  of.  ='181 

 .  Joints  for.  ='183 

 in  Mansard  Roof.  ='184, 

186 

 .  North  Country  Style  of, 

='187-196 

 ,  Stone  Gabled,  ='196.  197 

Double    Floors.    ='74-78    {see  also 

Floors.  Double) 
Double-hung  Sash  Frame,  =^427 
Double-margin     Doors,  ='373-375, 

=^381-390 

 ,  Circular-framed,  *381- 

390 

Dovetail  Halving  Joints,  Shoul- 
dered, '55 

  Joints,  ='61,  ='62 

  Lap  Joints,  ='55 

 Ledged  Joint,  ='62,  64 


Dovetail  Notching,  =^55,  *118 

  Saw,  17 

  Scarf  Joint,  =^58 

  Secret  Joint,  ="62,  64 

  Slip-feather  Joint,  ='62 

 Splayed  Joiijt,  ='58 

  Tenon  Joints,  *67 

Dowelled  Angle  Joint,  *65 

 Floor  Joint,  =^=90 

  Joint,  ='62 

  Post  and  Sill,  Joint  for,  ='55 

Dragon  Tie  at  Foot  of  Hip  Rafter, 

"125,  128 
Draw-boring,  ='314 
Draw-boring  Mortice  and  Tenon, 

="318 

Draw  Knife,  *13 

Draw-pinning,  Boring  Jambs  for, 

='314 

Drying  Timber,  Erith's  Method 

of,  =^32,  33 
 ,  "  Sturtevant  "  Method 

of.  ="32 
Dry  Rot  in  Timber.  41 
Dulfy's  Patent  Wood-block  Floor, 

='96 

Dutch  Wainscot,  48 


Earth  Waggons,  Timber  for,  51 
Edge  Joints,  ='61,  62 

 for  Floors,  ='90,  91 

Edge  Moulds,  Setting  Out,  ='499 
Ellipse,  Definition  of,  253 

 ,  Setting  Out,  ='253,  254 

Elliptical  Arches,  Centerings  for, 
='257 

  -,  Setting  Out  Curves  for, 

='253,  255 

  Cone,  Frustum  of,  ='497 

  Conical  Soffit  Lining.  ="497 

 Niche.  Arch  Centering  for, 

='281-284 

  Stone   Arch,   Centering  for, 

='273,  277 

  Window,  Centering  for,  ='257 

Elliptical-headed  Linings  for  Sash 

Frame,  ='459 
 Opening,   Soffit   Lining  for 

='496-502 

 •  Sash  Frame,  =^458-461 

  Window,  ='446-449 

Elm,  47 

 ,  American,  47 

Emery  Oilstones,  24 
Endogenous  Timber.  28 
English  Oak,  48 

Erith's  Automatic  Timber  Drier, 

='32,  33 

Evans  and  Swain's  Wooden  Floor, 
92 

Exeter  Hammer,  =^18 
Exogenous  Timber,  28 
Exogens.  26 

  and    Endogens,  Difference 

between,  28 
Expanding  Centre  Bits,  =*21 


Face  Moulds  for  Sash  Frame 
Heads,  ='465 

  and  Soffit  Moulds  for  Circu- 
lar Door.  ='392,  393 

Fanlight  and  Casements,  *443,  449 


560 


INDEX. 


Fanlight  and  Casements  in  Solid 
Frame,  *446-449 

  in  Outer  Door,  *346-349 

 ,  Pediment  and,  *541 

Fawcett's  Wood-block  Floor,  *97 
Feather,  Slip,  *61 
Felt,  Slag-,  91 

Fibres,  Twisted,  in  Timber,  *41,  42 
Files,  Saw,  *17,  18 

 ,  Woodworkers',  *23 

Fillisters,  Sash,  *14 
Fir,  Riga,  ^'=44 

 ,  Scotch,  44 

 ,  Spruce,  43,  44 

  Timber,  Converted,  43 

 ,  Prussian,  44,  45 

 ,  Unconverted,  44 

 ,  White,  44 

Fireproof  Partitions,  110 

 Wooden  Floors,  *91-93 

Firmer  Chisels,  *11 
Pished  Butt  Joint,  *59 
  Joints,  *57 

 with  Hardwood  Keys,  *58 

 ,  Keyed  and  Bolted,  *58 

  and  Tabled  Joints,  *58 

Flat-head  Screws,  *25 
Floor,  *68-97 

 ,  Basement,  *68,  69 

  Binder,  Determining  Size  of, 

84,  85 

  Boards,  86-91 

 ,  Cramping,  89,  90 

 ,  Direction  of   Grain  in, 

*88 

 with     Heading  Joints 

Crossed,  Laying,  *89 

 ,  Joints  for,  *90,  91 

 ,  Laying,  *88-90 

   ,  Oak  Border  Fitted  to, 

*77 

 ,  Planing  Machine  for,  87 

 ,  Sizes  of,  86,  87 

 ,  Stacking,  87,  88 

 ,  Timber  for,  51,  86 

  Brads,  *90 

  Cramps,  =^'89,  90 

 ,  Determining  Size  of  Girder 

for,  85,  86 

 ,  Double,  *74-78 

 ,  ,  Iron  Binders  for,  *75,  77 

 ,  ,  Steel  Binders  for,  *77, 

78 

 ,  ,  Wooden     Binders  for, 

*74.  75 

■  ,  Double-boarded,  91 

 ,  Estimating  Load  on,  83 

 ,  Fireproof,  *91-93 

 ,  ,  Asbestos    Slabs  under, 

*91,  92 

 ,  ,  Evans  and  Swain's,  92 

 ,  ,  Hinton  and  Day's,  92 

- — ,  .Solid,  -92 

 .Framed,  *78-80 

 ,  Girders  for,  78 

 ,  ,  Stirrup  Irons  for,  *80 

 ,  Girder  for,  *85,  86 

■  ,  Ground,  *68,  69 

 ,  Herringbone    Strutting  for, 

*72 

  Joint,  Dowelled,  *90 

 .Edge,  *90.  91 

 ,  Headed,  *90 

■    ,  Iron  Tongue,  *90 

 ,  "  Pavodilos,"  *91 

 ,  Rebated,  *90 

 ,          and  Filleted,  *90 

 ,  .Grooved  and 

Tongued,  *90 

 .Straight,  *90 

  Joists,  Bridging,  Determin- 
ing Size  of,  83,  84 

 ,  Determining    Sizes  of, 

52 

 ,  Supporting,  82 

 ,  Weight  on,  82,  83 

 ,  Laying  Folded,  *88,  89 

 .  Load  on,  83 


Floor,  Pugging  for,  *91 

 ,  Single,  *69-72 

 .  Sound-proof.  *91 

 .  Strutting,  ^'=81,  82 

 .  Trimming  Joist  for,  71 

 ,  Trimming  Round  Openings, 

-72 

 with  Trussed  Beams,  *80,  81 

 ,  Wood-block,  *93-97 

 ;  ,  Bitumen  for,  94 

 ,  ,  Chequer,  *96 

 ,  ,  Designs  for,  *96 

 ,  ,  Duffy's  Patent,  *96 

 ,  ,  Fawcett's,  *97 

- —  ,  Fixing,  96 

 ,  ,  Geary's  Patent,  *96 

 ,  ,  Herringbone,  *95 

 ,  ,  Jointing,  96 

 ,  — — ,  Laying,  94,  95 

 ,  ,  Panel  and  Frame  De- 
sign of,  *96 

■  ,  ,  Parquet,  97 

 ,  ,  Preparing  Basement 

for,  93,  94 

 ,  ,  Solid,  93 

■  ,  ,  Tile  Design  of,  *96 

 ,  -,  Turpin's  Patent,  *96 

■  ,  ,  Wood  for,  93 

  with  Wrought    Binder,  *74, 

75 

Flooring,  Laying  Baltic,  89 

 ,  Shippers'  Marks  on,  86 

 ,  Stacking,  87 

 .  Timber  for,  86 

Flying  or  Horizontal  Shores, 
* 235-238 

  Shores  for  Buildings  of  Un- 
equal Heights,  *236 
Folded  Floors,  Laying,  *88,  89 
Folding  and  Sliding  Partitions, 

* 544-549 
Forstner  Auger  Bit,  *22 
Foundations,  Pile,  Timber  for,  51 
Four-panelled     Moulded  Door, 
*333,  335,  *342-346 

 ,  Hanging,  *337-340 

  Outer  Door,  *346-349 

Foxiness  in  Timber,  41 
Foxtail  Tenon  Joints,  *67 
Framed   and   Braced  Door  and 
Frame,  *318-323 

 ,  Hanging,  320 

 ,  Making,  *319 

 Sliding  Door,  *326 

  Door,  *335 

  Floors  [see  Floors,  Framed) 

  and    Panelled    Linings  to 

Doorway.  *516-519 
Frameless  Stable  Doors,  *324.  325 
Frame,  Sash  {see  Sash  Frame) 
Frames,  Door  (see  Door  Frames) 
Framework,  Trying  Up,  *326,  327 
Framing  for  Staging,  Joints  for, 

*60 

French  Casements  with  Boxing 

Shutters,  *449-458 

 ,  Fitting,  *454 

 to  Open  Inwards,  *443- 

446 

  Nails,  24 

Front-entrance   Door    {see  Door, 

Front-entrance) 
Frustum     of     Elliptical  Cone, 

*497 


G 


Gabled  Dormer.  *182-184 
Gable,  Half-timbered,  *206 

 -,  PanelHng,  *210 

  Treatment,  *210 


Gallery,  Portable,  *230,  231 
Galls,  Rind,  in  Timber,  41 
Gantries,  *215,  216 
Gantry,  Bitch  for,  *216,  217 

 ,  Derrick  Tower,  *221,  222 

 ,  Dogs  for,  *217,  218 

 ,  Erecting,  *216,  217 

—  Joints,  =^218 

— -,  Movable,  to  Support  Travel- 
ler, *223,  224 

  over  Pavement,  *218 

  Strut  Joints,  *56 

 ,  Tower,  *221,  222 

  for  Traveller,  •=224 

Gauges,  Cutting,  *3 

 ,  Marking,  *3 

 ,  Panel,  *3 

Geary's  Patent  Wood-block  Floor, 
*96,  97 

Geometrical  Head  Linings  to 
Door  and  Window  Openings, 
*494,  495 

 Splayed    Linings  Veneered 

for  Polished  Work,  *495 
  Tools,  *l-4 

Gimlet-handle  Screwdrivers,  20 
Gimlets,  -20 

Girder,  Floor,  Determining  Size 

of,  85,  86 

  for  Framed  Floor,  78 

Glasspaper,  22,  23 

Glazed    Partition,    Setting  Out, 

*522,  523 
Glue,  25 
Glue-brush,  25 
Glued  Blockings,  *63 
Glue-pot,  *25 

Gluing    and    Wedging-up  Doors 

and  Framing,  *331 
Gothic  Arch,  Centre  for,  * 266-268 
Gothic-on-circle  Arch,  Centering 

for,  *264,  265 
Gouges.  *13 

Grand  Stand  for  Sports  Ground, 
*228-230 

Grecian  Ogee  Base  Moulding,  *468 

  Ovolo  Moulding,  *468 

Grindstones,  "23 

Groin  Vaulting,  Centering  for, 
*284-286 

Grooved  and  Tongued  Joint,  *62 

Ground  Floors,  *68,  69 

Guard  Beads  for   Sash  Frames, 

*467 

Gutters  behind  Parapet,  *164 


H 


Half -timber  Framing,  Timber  for, 
51 

  Work,  *199-214 

 .  Angle-posts  in,  201 

 on  Cottage,  *202-204 

 ,  Door      and  Window 

frames  in,  *202 

 ,  Forms  of,  *201 

 on  Gable,  *206 

 House,  *205 

 ,  Sham,  *206,  208 

 ,  Timber  for,  199 

Hall  Screen  with  Door,  *523-525 
Halved  Joints,  *54,  55,  *59 

 .Bevelled.  *55 

 .  Double.  *59 

 ,  Dovetail  Shouldered, 

*55 

Halving  Joists  on  Partition  Head, 
*72 

Hammer,  Adze-eye,  *18 


INDEX. 


561 


Hammer,  Exeter,  *18 

  Heads,  18,  19 

 ,  Warrington,  *18 

Hammer-beam  Roofs,  *144 

 ,  Raising,   '144,  145 

Hammer-headed  Key  Joints,  *67 
Hammer-setting  Saw  Teeth,  *18 
Hand  Saws  {see  Saw) 

  Tools  and  Appliances,  *l-25 

Hard  Woods,  42,  43 

Hardwood  Dado,  Fixing,  *491-493 

■        Door-casings,  Fixing,  *504-506 

Hatchets,  *19 

Haunched  Tenon  Joints,  *67 
Haunching  Door  Rail,  *372 

  and  Scribing  Rails,  *415 

Headed  Floor  Joints,  *90 
Heading  Joints,  *90 
Heads,  Hammer,  18,  19 
Heart-shakes  in  Timber,  *41 
Heartwood,  28,  29 
Heel-strap,  *132 

  for    Tie-beam    and  Rafter, 

*129 

Hemispherical   Dome,  Centering 

for,  *286-288 
Herringbone  Strutting,  *72,  81 

  Wood-block  Floor,  *95 

Hexagonal    Hopper,    Bevels  for, 

*552 

Hinges,  Door,  Fixing,  *339,  340 

 ,  Spring,  for  Swinging  Doors. 

*541 

Hinton  and  Day's  Wooden  Floor, 
92 

Hip  Rafters,  Backing  of,  *166,  167 

 ,  Dragon  Tie  at  Foot  of, 

*125,  128 

Hipped  End  of  King-post  Roof, 

*124  125 

  Mansard  Roof,  *196 

 of      Queen-post  Roof 

Truss,  *129 
 Roof,     Timbering  for, 

*171 

  Roof,  Irregular,  *160-163 

 ,   ,  Setting  Out,  *160, 

161 

Hips,  Bevels  for,  *173,  175 

 for     Roofs     over  Obtuse 

Angles,  Bevels  for,  *170,  171 
  and  Purlins,  Joints  between, 

*166 

Holding  Work,  Tools  for,  *5-ll 
Holmsunds'    Quality    Marks  on 

Timber,  52 
Honduras  Mahogany,  50 
Hopper,    Hexagonal,  Bevels  for, 

*552 

 .  Triangular,  Mitered  Angles 

of,  *553,  554 
Horizontal  or  Flying  Shore,  *235 
House,  Half-timbered,  *205 
Housing  Joint,  66,  *67 

  Joists  to  Trimmers,  *71,  73 

Howe  Roof  Truss,  *153 


Impulsion  Tools,  *18-20 
Irish  Roof  Truss,  *154,  158 
Irons.  Stirrup.  *80 
Iron  Tongue  Floor  Joint,  *90 


Jack  Planes,  *13 

  Rafters,  Bevels  for,  *168,  169 


Jamb  Linings  of  Door,  Framed, 
*342,  344 

 Four     -  panelled 

Moulded  Door,  *335 
 Six-panelled  Door, 

*346 

Joiufirs'  Rods  {see  Rods) 

 •VVork    Prepared    by  Hand, 

*326-332 
Joinery,  Joints  in,  61-67 
Jointing    Beams    to    Posts  and 

Struts,  *61 
Joints,  * 54-67 

 ,  Abutment,  *61 

 ,  Angle  Halved,  *55 

  for  Beams  and  Posts,  *59 

  in  Beams,  Strength  of,  59,  60 

  of    Beams    to    Posts  and 

Struts,  *60,  61 

 ,  Bevelled  Halving,  *55 

 ,  Bird's-mouthed,  "55,  56 

  for  Boarding  of  Doors,  *319 

 ,  Box  Pin,  *62,  64 

 ,  Brace  and  Post,  *61 

 -,  Bridle,  *55 

 ,  ,  Oblique,  *55 

 ,  Butt  {see  Butt  Joint) 

  in  Carpentry,  *54-61 

 ,  Chase  Mortice,  *55,  56 

 for  Church  Roof,  *144,  148 

 :  Cogging,  *55 

  for  Collar  Beam  Roof,  *143, 

146 

  to   withstand  Compression, 

*57 

 and  Cross 

Strain,  *57,  58 

 ,  Cross-halved,  *54 

  for  Cross-strain,  *57 

 ,  Diminished  Dovetail  Ledged, 

■=62.  65 

Divided  Tenon,  *55 
for  Dormer  Windows,  *183, 
'191,  194 

Double  Abutment,  *251 

  Halved,  *59 

  Tenon,  *67 

Dovetail,  *61,  62 

  Lap,  *55 

 Ledged,  *62,  64 

 Notching,  *55 

•         Scarf,  *58 

  Slip-feather,  *62 

  Splayed,  *58 

DoweHed,  *62,  65 

  Angle,  *65 

—  Post  and  Sill,  *55 
Edge,  *61,  62,  *90,  91 
Fished,  *57 

  Butt,  Double,  *59 

 .Single,  *59 

 ,  Keyed  and  Bolted,  *58 

 ,  with  Hardwood  Keys,  *58 

  and  Tabled,  *57 

Floor,  *90,  91  {see  also  Floor 
Joint) 

-  for  Floor  Boards,  *90,  91 

 Framing  of  Staging,  *60 

-,  Gantry  Strut,  *56 
-:  Gkied  Blockings,  *63 
-,  Grooved  and  Tongued,  *62 
-.Halved,  *54,  55,  59 

-,  .Double,  *59 

-,  Hammer-headed  Key,  *67  ■ 
-,  Haunched  Tenon,  *67 

-  at  Head  of  Queen-post  Roof 
Truss.  *131,  132 

-.Heading,  *90 
-,  Housing,  *66,  67 

-  for  King-post  Roof  Truss, 
*118,  120 

-,  Lapped,  *62,  64 

-,  ,  with  Keys  and  Straps, 

*57 

-  for  Ledged  Doors,  *316 
  Lengthening  Beams  and 

Posts.  *57-59 

-,  Matched  and  Beaded,  *62 


and 

Grooved 


^63 


and 


Joints  for  Meeting  Rail  and  Stile 

of  Top  Sash,  *418 

 ,  Mitre  Tongued,  *62 

 ,  Mitered  Butt,  *56 

 ,  and  Tenoned,  *61 

 .  ,  Grooved  and  Tongued, 

*63 

 ,  Mortice     and     Tenon  (see 

Joint,  Tenon,  below) 

 ,  Notched,  *55 

 ,  Obtuse  Angle,  *61 

 ,  Grooved 

Tongued,  *63 
 ,  Mitered, 

and  Tongued,  *63 

 .  Rebated, 

 ,  ,  Grooved 

Staff  Beaded,  *63 
 ,  Parallel  Scarf,  with  Joggled 

Ends,  '59 

  for  Pavement  Gantry,  *218 

 ,  Plain  Butt,  *62 

 ,          Mitre,  *62 

 ,  Ploughed         and  Cross 

Tongued,  *62 
  between    Post,    Corbel  and 

Beam,  *60 

 Purlins  and  Hips,  *166 

  for  Quarter  Partitions,  *109 

 Queen-post  Roof  Truss, 

*128,  129 

  between  Rafter  and  Tie- 
beam,  *129 

  for  Rafters,  *133 

Raking    Scarf    with  Butt 
End,  *57 

 ,  for  Ridges,  *58 

Rebated,  *62 

  Butt,  *62 

  and  Filleted,  *62 

 Grooved,  *63 

 ,  Grooved,  and 

Beaded,  *63 

— ,  Tongued, 

—  and  Mitre,  *62 
— ,  Mitered     and  Double- 
tongued,  *63 

—  and  Staff  Beaded,  *63 
— ,  Tongued      and  Staff 

Beaded,  *63 

  between     Roof     Hips  and 

Ridge,  *131 

  for  Sash  Frame,  *416 

 ,  Scarf,  Splayed  with  Folding 

Wedges,  *59 
 ,  ,  Tredgold's  Rule  for  Pro- 
portioning, *59 

 ,  Scarfed,       with  Folding 

Wedges,  *59 

 ,  Screwed  Straight,  *62,  65 

 ,  Secret  Dovetail,  *62,  64 

 ,          Mitered,  *62,  64 

 Railway  Arch  Shoring, 

*248,  249 

  for  Semicircular  Arch  Cen- 
terings, *254,  256 

 ,  Shouldered  Dovetail  Halv- 
ing, *55 

 .          Tenon,  *55 

 ,  Single  Tenon,  *67 

 ;  Splay-rebated,  *62 

 ,  Splayed  Scarf,  *59,  62 

 ;  ,  with  Folding 

Wedges,  *59 

 ,  ,  with   Iron  Plates, 

-58 

 ,  Straight,  *62 

 ,  Strut  and  Post,  *61 

  in      Struts      and  Beams, 

Strength  of.  59,  60 

 ,  Stump  or  Stub  Tenon, 

 .Tabled,  *57 

 ,          Scarf,  *59 

 ,  ,  with  Keys 

Plates,  *58 

 ,          and  Splayed  Scarf, 

 ,  Tenon,  *55,  56,  *66.  67, 

319,  *328-330 


Staff 
*62 


^55 


and 


*57 
*317- 


562 


INDEX. 


Joints,  Tenon,  Application  of.  67 
—  Double,  *67 
— ,  Dovetail,  *67 
— ,  Foxtail,  *67 

 ,  Haunched,  *67 

 ,  Pinned,  *67 

 ,  Proportioning,  67 

 .Single,  *67 

 ,  Stump  or  Stub,  *67 

 ,  Tusk,  *67 

Tenoned    and  Bird's-mouth 
Shouldered,  *61 

  for  Tension,  *57 

 and  Compression, 

*57 

  Cross  Strain, 

*57 

 ,  Toe,  *56 

■  ,  Tredgold  IS'otching,  *55 

  for  Trussed  Framed  Parti- 
tions, *101,  102 

 Trussed  Partitions,  *98, 

100 

 ,  Tusk  Tenon,  *56 

 ,  and  Keyed,  *71 

 '-,  ,  between  Tie-beams, 

*125 

 •,  Twin-tenon,  *67 

 ,  Vertical  Scarf,  *59 

  for  Wood-block  Floor,  96 

Joist,  Bridging,  Determining  Size 

of.  83,  84 
 ,  Ceiling,  Binder  Chased-mor- 

tised  for,  =-74 
 ,  Floor,  Determining  Sizes  of, 

82 

 ,  ,  Supporting,  *82 

 ,  ,  Timber  for,  51 

■  ,  ,  Trimming,  71 

■  ,  ,  Weight  on,  82,  83 

 ,  Halving,  on  Partition  Head, 

*72 

 ,  Housing,  to  Trimmers,  *71, 

73 

 ,  Supporting,  by  Walls,  *82 

 .  Wall  Plate  for  Supporting, 

*82 


Key  Joints,  Hammer-headed,  *67 
King-bolt  Roof  Truss,  *149,  150 
King-post  and  Queen-post  Truss, 
*131,  132 

 ,  Securing  Tie-beam  and,  *124 

  Truss,  *118 

 ,  Hipped  End  of,  *124,  125 

 ,  Joints  for,  *118 

Kirkcaldy's  Experiments  on  Beam 

Strengths,  40 
Knife,  Draw,  *13 
"  Knock-up  "  Bench  Tops,  *8 
Knots  in  Timber,  41 


Ledged  and  Braced  Door,  *316- 
318 

  Doors  {see  Doors,  Ledged) 

 and  Frames,  *312-318 

Levels,  Spirit,  *4 

Linen  Press,  Joiners'  Eods  for, 

*307,  308 
Lining  Log  Timber,  *38  ft 
Lining  Material,  481,  482 

 ,  Pitchpine  for,  481 

Linings,  Bevels  for,  *551,  552 
  Framed   and    Panelled,  for 

Doorway,  *516-519 
 ,  Geometrical        Head,  to 

Door  and  Window  Openings, 

*494,  495 

 ,          Splayed,    built    up  in 

Sections,  *495 

 ,  ,  Veneered  for 

Polished  Work,  *495,  496 

  for  Sash  Frame,  Elliptical- 
headed,  *459 

— -,  Soffit,  Elliptical  Conical, 
*497 

 ,  ,  for  Elliptical-headed 

Opening,  *496-502 

 ,  Veneered  Splayed,  to  Open- 
ing with  Circular  Head,  ■■i)03 

Log  Timber,  Lining,  *38 

London  Screwdrivers,  *20 


Lamb's  Tongue  Moulding,  *468 
Lancashire-pattern  Pincers,  *11 
Lapped  Joint,  *62,  64 

■  with  Keys  and  Straps 

*57 

Laying  Floor  Boards,  *88-90 
Lead  Plugs,  *485 
Lean-to  Eoofs,  *113-116 


M 


Mahogany,  50,  51 

 ;  Baywood,  50,  51 

 ,  Honduras,  50 

 ,  Panama,  50 

 ,  Spanish,  50 

Mallets,  *19 

Mansard  Roof,  *134-143 

 ,  Belidor's  System  of  Set- 
ting Out,  *134 

 ,  Dormer    for,   *134,  136, 

*197,  198 

 with  Flat  Top,  Dormer 

in,  *197,  198 

 ,  Hipped  End,  *196 

 ,  Ordinary  Form  of,  *134 

 ,  Principles  in  Design- 
ing, *138,  140,  141 

 over  Room  with  Arched 

Ceiling,  *142,  143 

 without  Trusses,  *138 

Marking  Gauges,  *3 

  Tools,  '-'3 

  Work  for  Sawing,  *3 

Marks  on  Timber,  52,  53 

Matchboarding,  *61 

Match  and  Beaded  Joint,  *62 

McNeile's  Process  of  Seasoning 
Timber,  31 

Medullary  Rays,  26 

Mitered  Angles  of  Triangular 
Hopper,  *553,  554 

 Butt  and  Tenoned  Joint,  *61 

" — -  Butt  Joints,  *56 

  Joint,  Secret,  *62,  64 

Mitering,  Appliances  for,  *4 

  Door  Bead.  '317 

  Mouldings,  *479 

  and       Scribing,  Marking 

Mouldings  for,  *480 

  Template,  *370 

Mitre  Block,  *4 

  Box,  *4 

  Joint,  Plain,  *62 

 ,  Tongued,  *62 

  Lines  on  Mouldings,  *554.  555 

 ,  Setting  Out,  *554-556 


Mitre  Shooting  Block,  *4 

  Square,  *3 

Mortice  Chisels,  *11 

  Joints,  Chase.  *55.  56 

  and  Tenon,  Draw-boring,  *318 

 Joints    (see  Joint, 

Tenon) 

Mortising    and   Tenoning  Door, 
572 

 Door-frame,  369 

Moulded   and   Panelled  Framed 

Partition,  *520-522 
Moulding    Frame    of  Front-en- 
trance Door.  *369 
Mouldings,  *468-480 

•  ,  Angle  or  Returned  Bead,  *468 

 ,  Architrave,  *468 

 ,  Astragal,  and  Fillets,  *468 

 .  Bead  Architrave,  *468 

 ,  Bolection,  *363,  *468 

 ,  ,  Working,  *472 

 ,  Cavetto  Quirked  Ogee,  *468 

 ,  Cleaning  Up,  =''474,  475 

 ,  Common,  *469 

 ,  Cornice,  Working,  *473 

 ,  ,  Circular,  *473,  474 

 ,  Curved  Thumb  Rebate  Plane 

for,  *470 

 ,  Cutting  Gauge  for,  *471 

 ,  Cyma  Recta,  *468 

 .Diminishing,  *475,  476 

 ,  Door,  *362 

 ,  ,  Planting,  332,  333 

 ,  Double  Face  Architrave,  *468 

 ,          Torus,  *468 

 ,  Enlarging,  *476 

 ,  Fitting,        for  Panelled 

Linings,  *363 

 ,  Fixing  and  Fitting,  *475 

 ,  Grecian  Ogee  Base,  *468 

 ,          Ovolo,  *468 

 ,  Lamb's  Tongue,  *468 

 ,  Marking,  for  Mitering  and 

Scribing,  *480 

 ,  Mitering,  *479,  480,  *554,  555 

 ,  ,  Template  for,  *370 

 :  Nosing,  ^'468 

— ,  Ogee  Panel,  Working,  *472 

 ,  Ovolo,  *468 

 ,  Parting  Bead,  *468 

 ,  Planes  for  Straight,  *469,  470 

 .Quirked  Bead,  *468 

 ,  Quirk  Routers  for,  *471 

■  -,          Grecian  Ogee  Panel,  '468 

.  ,          Ogee  and  Bead,  *468 

 ,  Raking,     round  External 

Angle,  M76,  477 
 ,  ,  on  Internal  Angle,  *477, 

478 

 ,  Intersecting  Obtuse 

Angle  with  Horizontal,  *478 

 ,  Ramping,   to    Given  Point, 

*479,  480 

 ,  Reverse  Ogee,  *468 

 ,  Roman  Ovolo,  *468 

 :  Scotia,  *468 

 -,  Scratch  Tools  for,  *470 

 ,  Scribing,  *480 

 ,  Setting  Out,  *475,  476 

 ,  Shaped,  Tools  for,  *470-472 

 ,  Staff  Bead,  -468 

 ,  Straight,   Planes   for.  *469. 

470 

 ,  Sunk,  363 

- — -,  "  Thumb,"  *468 

•  ,         Hollows  and  Rounds  for 

471 

 ,          Mould  for,  *472 

 ,  Tools  for  Shaped,  *470-472 

 ,  Torus,  *468 

 ,  Varieties  of,  *468,  469 

Moul'ds,  Edge,  Setting  Out,  *499 
Mould,  Thumb,  Working.  ■*472 
"  Mouse  "  used  in  Replacing  Sash- 
line,  *422,  423 
Mulleting  Door  Panels,  *331 
Muntins,  Door.  Setting  Out.  *327. 
328.  *352 


INDEX. 


563 


Nails,  *24 

 :  Brads,  24 

 ,  French,  24 

 ,  Oval  Clasp,  24 

 ,  Punches  for,  24 

 ,  Rose-head,  24 

 ,  Wrought  Clasp,  24 

Niche,  Centering   for  Elliptical, 

*281-284 
Norwegian  Balks,  45 

  Deals,  45 

Nose  Bits,  21 

Nosing  Moulding,  *468 

Notched    Collar    into    Edge  of 

Rafters,  *118 

•          Joints,  *55 

 ,  Tredgold,  *55 

Notching,  Dovetail,  *118 

  Joints,  Dovetail,  *55 

Nova  Scotia  Oilstones,  23,  24 


O 


Oak,  American,  48 

 Baltic,  48 

 ,  Converting,  *35 

 ,  English,  48 

 ■  Panels,  Cutting    Timber  to 

Obtain,  *36 

  Panelwork,  *490,  491 

 ,  Wainscot,  48 

Obtuse      Angle     Grooved  and 

Tongued  Joint,  *63 

 Rebated  Joints,  *63 

 ,  Grooved  and 

Staff  Beaded,  *63 
 Mitered,  Grooved 

and  Tongued  Joint,  *63 
Ochre  Box,  39 

Octagonal  Pyramidal  Roof,  *176- 
179 

Ogee  Panel  Mouldings,  Working, 
*472 

Oilstones,  23,  24 

 ,  Arkansas,  23,  24 

 ,  Canada,  24 

 ,  Charnley  Forest,  23 

 ,  Emery,  24 

 ,  Nova  Scotia,  23,  24 

 -,  Oil  for,  24 

 ,  Substitutes  for,  24 

 ,  Turkey,  23 

 ,  Washita,  23,  24 

Openings    in    Floors,  Trimming 

Round,  *72 
Open  Timber  Roofs,  *143,  144 
Oval  Arches,  *253 
Ovolo  Moulding,  *468 


P 


Panama  Mahogany,  50 
Panel  and  Frame  Design  of  Wood- 
block Floor,  *96 
  Gauge,  *3 


Panelled   Linings,  Constructing, 

*3^5 

 for   Doorways,  *363-365, 

-516-519 

 ,  Fitting    Moulding  for, 

363 

  and  Moulded  Framed  Parti- 
tion, -520-522 

  Wainscoting,  *507,  508 

Panelling  and  Enriched  Cornice, 
*508-516 

  in  Half-timber  Work,  *210 

Panels,  Bead  and  Flush,  *356 

 ,  Bolection  Moulded,  *357-358 

  of  Circular  Doors,  *381 

  for  Composite  Doors,  *377 

 Vestibule  Framing,  -540 

 ,  Door,  *330,  331 

 ,  ,  Mulleting,  *331 

 ,  .Repairing  Split,  340-342 

 ,  Head,    Geometrical  Setting 

Out  for,  ^^'500,  501 

 ,  Raised,  Working,  *474 

 ,  Replacing,  in  Doors,  '342 

 ,  Setting  Out  for,  *501-503 

■  ,  Tympanum,  *538 

Panelwork,  Oak,  *490,  491 
Parallel  Scarf  Joint  with  Joggle 

Ends,  *59 
Parapet.  Gutters  behind,  *164 
Paring  Tools.  *11-15 
Parquet  Floors,  97 
Parting  Bead  Moulding,  *468 
Partition,  *520 

 .Braced  and  Trussed,  *98-110 

 ,  ,  for  Two  Doorways,  *109 

 .  Brick-nogged.  98 

 :  Corridor  Screen  with  Door, 

*525-528 

 ,  Cross,  *103 

 ,  Fireproof,  110 

 .Folding  and  Sliding,  *544  549 

 ,  Framed,       Panelled  and 

Moulded,  *520-522 

 ,  Glazed,  Setting  Out,  -522,  523 

 :  Hall  Screen,  =^=523-525 

 Head,  Halving  Joists  on.  *72 

 .Joints  for,  *101.  102 

 ,  Panelled       and  Moulded 

Framed,  *520-522 

 ,  Quarter,  *109 

 ,  ,  through    Two  Storeys, 

n09 

 ,  .Joints  for,  *109 

 .  Sliding  and  Folding.  *544-549 

 .  Sound-proof.  Ill 

— — ,  Staircase,  *103,  104 

 ,  Stud,  *98 

— ,  Timber,  *98-lll 

 ,  Trussed.  *98,  100,  *109,  110 

 ,          Framed,  *101 

 ,  ,  Joints  for,  nOO-102 

 :  Vestibule  Screen,  *529.  530 

  Wall.  Door  in.  *333,  335 

Partitions  arbd  Screens,  *520-549 
Pavement  Gantry,  *218 
"  Pavodilos  "  Floor  Joint,  *91 
Percussion  Tools,  *18-20 
Pilasters  of  Vestibule  Framing, 
*537,  539 

Pile  Foundations,  Timber  for,  51 

Pin  Bits,  21 

Pincers,  *11 

Pine,  American  Red,  47 

 ,          Yellow,  47 

Pinned  Tenon  Joints,  *67 
Pitch  of  Roof,  Determining,  112, 
113 

Pitchpine,  47.  48 

  for  Lining,  481 

  Log,  Converting,  *35 

Pit  Sawing,  Marking  Timber  for, 
38,  39 

Pivot  for  Swinging  Door,  *544 
Planes,  *13-15 

 ,  Bead,  *14 

 ,  Compass,  14 

 ,  Fillister,  14 


Planes,  Jack,  13 

 ,  Rebate,  *14 

 ,  Router,  15 

 ,  Sash  Fillister,  *14 

 ,  Side  Fillister,  *14,  15 

 ,  Smoothing,  *13,  14 

  for  Straight  Mouldings.  *469, 

470 

 .  Trueing,  *13 

Planing     Machine     for  Floor 

Boards,  86,  87 

 ,  "  Shimer,"  87 

Planking    to    Earth  Waggons, 

Timber  for,  51 
Plank  Roof  Truss,  *156,  157,  159 
Planks,  43 

 ,  Converting  Timber  into,  *35 

  Defined,  35 

Planting   Door    Mouldings,  332, 
333 

Plier  Saw  Set,  *18 

Ploughed    and    Cross  Tongued 

Joint,  *62 
Plugs,  Iron-cased,  *485 

 ,  Lead,  *485 

 ,  Round  Wooden,  *486 

 ,  Wooden,  for  Grounds,  *482 

Plumb  Rule,  *4 

Pockets,  Cutting,  in  Sash  Frame, 

M18-421 
Post  and  Brace  Joint,  *61 

 Strut  Joint,  *61 

Preserving  Timber,  34,  35 

 ,  Bethell's  Process  of,  34 

 ,  Bouchere's  Process  of.  34 

 ,  Burnett's  Process  of,  34 

Prussian  Fir  Timber,  44,  45 
"  Pugging,"  *91 

Pulley  Stiles,  Setting  Out,  *409/ 
410 

 of  Solid  Mullion  Sash 

Frame,  *436 
Punches,  Nail,  *24 
Purlins,  Bevels  for,  *171,  173 
  and   Hips,   Joints  between, 

*166 

  Trimmed  to  Chimneys,  *165, 

166 

Pyramidal  Octagonal  Roof,  *176- 
179 


Q 


Quality  Marks  on  Timber,  *45, 
53 

Quarter  Partitions,  *109 

 .Joints  for.  *109 

 Through  Two  Storeys, 

*109 

Quarterings,  35 

Queen-bolt  Roof  Truss,  *149,  151 
Queen-post  Roof  Truss,  *128-132 
 with   Hipped  End, 

*129,  131 

 ,  Joints  for,  *128 

 ,  Joints  at  Head  of, 

*131,  132 

 ,  Three-way  Strap 

for,  *127,  128 

Quirked  Bead  Mouldings,  *468 

  Grecian  Ogee  Panel  Mould- 
ing, *468 

  Ogee    and    Bead  Moulding, 

*468 

  Ovolo  and  Bead  Moulding, 

*468 

 Fillet.  *468 

Quirk  Routers  for  Mouldings, 
*471 


564 


INDEX. 


E 


Radius  Rod,  Setting  Out  Curves 

with,  *251 
Rafters,  Bevels  for.  *166-169 

 Hip,  Backing  of,  *166,  167 

 ,  Jack,  Bevels  for,  *168,  169 

 ,  ,  Fixing,  *166 

 ,  Joints  for,  *133 

 ,  Lengths  for,  -166,  167 

 ,  Securing  Principal,  to  Tie- 
beam,  *132 
  and    Tie-beam,    Joints  be- 
tween, *129,  133 

 ,  Valley,  Fixing,  *166 

Bails,  Door,  Setting  Out,  *328 

 ,  Sash  Frame,  Template  for, 

*416,  417 
Rakers  for  Shoring,  *241,  242 
Raking  Mouldings,  *476-478 

  Scarf  with  Butt  End,  *57 

 for  Ridges,  *58 

  Shores,  *233-235 

 ,  Erecting,  *233,  234 

Ramping    Mouldings    to  Given 

Point,  *479,  480 
Rasps,  Woodworker's,  *23 
Rebated  Butt  Joint,  *62 

  and  Filleted  Joint,  *62 

 Floor  Joint,  *90 

 Grooved  Joint,  *63 

 ,  Grooved,  and  Staff  Beaded 

Joints,  *63 

 ,  Tongued  Joint,  *62 

 ,  Floor  Joint, 

-90 

  Joint,  *62 

  and  Mitered  Joint,  *62 

 ,  Mitered  and  Double-tongued 

Joint,  *63 

  and  Staff  Beaded  Joint,  *63 

 ,  Tongued  and    Staff  Beaded 

Joint,  *63 
Rebate  Planes,  *14 
Rebating  Door  Frame,  *318,  319 
  Frame     of  Front-entrance 

Door,  *369 
  and    Moulding    Sash  Bars, 

*453,  454 

Recess  Cupboard,  Joiners'  Rods 

for,  *303-306 
Red  Deal,  43 

  Pine,  American,  47 

Ribs,  Bent,  Roof   Tx^ussed  with, 

*155,  159 

Riga  Fir,  44  (see  also  Russian  Tim- 
ber) 

Rind  Galls  in  Timber,  41 

Rod,  Radius,  Setting  Out  Curves 

with,  *251 
Rods  for  Boxed  Sash  Frame,  *293- 

296 

 Canted    Bay  Window, 

*300,  302 

 Deal    Door  with  Bead 

Butt,  *292 

 Doors,  *289-293 

 Double-margin  Door, 

*381-384 

 Four-panelled  Moulded 

Square  Door  and  Frame, 
*290-292 

 Glazed  Partitions,  *522 

  Ledged     and  Beaded 

Door  and  Frame,  *289^  290 

 Linen  Press,  *307,  308 

 Panelled   and  Moulded 

Partition,  *521 
 Portable  Cupboard,  *310, 

311 

 Recess  Cupboard  Front 

in  Two  Heights,  *303-306 

 Skylight,  *302,  303 

 Solid  Casement  Frame, 

*296,  297 

 Square    Bay  Window, 

*297-299 


Roman  Ovolo  Moulding,  *468 
Roof,  Belfast,  *154,  158 

 ,  Bent  Rib,  *155,  159 

 :  Bevels  and  Lengths  of  Hips 

and  Rafters,  *166,  167,  170,  171 

 ,  Bowstring,  *154,  158 

 ,  Church,  *144,  147,  148 

 ,  Circular,  of  Boards,  *159 

 ,  Collar  Beam,  *143,  144 

 ,  ,  with  Apse  End,  *143 

 ,  ,  Joints  for,  *143,  146 

 ,  Composite,  *149-154 

 ,  ,  for  Flat  Roof,  *153,  154 

 ,  Couple-close,  *117,  118 

 ,  Dormer  Windows  in,  *181-198 

 :  Dragon  Tie  at  Foot  of  Hip 

Rafter,  *125,  128 
 ,  Flat.  Composite  Truss  for, 

*153,  154 

 :  Gutter  behind  Parapet.  *164 

 ,  Hammer  Beam.  *144 

 ,  ,  Raising,  *144,  145 

 ,  Howe,  *153 

■ — -,  Irish,  *154,  158 

 ,  Irregular  Hipped,  *160-163 

 ,  .Setting    Out.  *160. 

161 

 .King-bolt,  *149.  150 

 ,  King-post,  *118 

 ,  .Hipped    End    of,  *124, 

125 

 .  .Joints  for,  *118,  120 

 ,  King-  and  Queen-post.  *131, 

132 

 ,  Lean-to,  *113-116 

 -.Light,  *155.  159 

 -.  Mansard.  *134-143,  196 

 -,  ,  for  Arched  Ceiling,  *142, 

143 

 ,  ,  Belidor's  System  of  Set- 
ting Out,  *134 

— ,  ,  Dormer   for,  *134,  136, 

*184,  186 

 ,  .  Principles  in  Designing, 

138,  *140,  141 

 ,  .without  Trusses.  *138 

— .  Octagonal  Pyramidal,  *176- 

179 

 .  Open  Timber.  *143.  144 

  Pitch.     Determining.  *112. 

113 

 .  Setting  Off,  *112.  113 

 ,  Plank,  n56.  157,  159 

 ,  Queen-bolt,  *149,  151 

 ,  Queen-post,  *128-132 

 ,  ,  with  Hipped  End,  *129, 

131 

 ,  ,  Joints  for,  *128 

 ,  ,         at  Head  of,  *131, 

132 

 .  ,  Three-way    Strap  for, 

*127,  128 

 Rafters  (see  Rafters) 

 ,  Scantlings  for,  121 

 :  Securing       Tie-beam  to 

Rafter,  *132 

 ,  Self-supporting  Shed,  *115 

  for  Shed,  *160 

 SmaU  House,  *117 

 ,  Span,  ni^-118 

 ,  ,  with  Collar  Braces,  *116 

 ,          Collar,  *118,  119 

  Supported  by  Iron  Columns, 

*122,  124 

 ,  Timbering  for  Hipped  End, 

*171 

  Timbers,    Arrangement  of, 

*163,  164 

  Truss.  Raising,  *144 

 ,  Timber  for,  51 

ViUa,  *163,  164 
Rose-head  Nails,  24 
Rot,  Dry,  41,  42 

 ,  Wet,  42 

Round-head  Screws,  *25 
Router  Planes.  *15 
Rule,  Boxwood,  *1 
 ,  Plumb,  *4 


Russian  Timber,  43-46 

 ,  Quality  Marks  on,  *45, 

46 

  White  Deals,  46 


S 


Sap  in  Timber,  Function  of,  28 

Sapwood  in  Timber,  28,  29,  41 

Sash  Bars,  Rebating  and  Mould- 
ing, *453,  454 

  Construction,  Application  of 

Templates  in,  *417 

  Cords,  Removing  and  Attach- 
ing, *423,  424 

 Cramps,  *421 

 .  Elliptical  Head  of,  *459,  460 

  Fillisters,  *14 

  Frame,  *404 

 Beads,  Removing,  *423 

 ,  Boxed,  Rods  for,  *293- 

296 

 ,  Casement.  *428-430 

 .  Circle-on-circle.  *463-467 

 .  Circular  Bull's-eye.  *461 

 Cords.  *423 

 .  Cramping.  416.  421,  422 

 ,  Cutting  Pockets  in,  *418- 

421 

 ,  Double-hung,  *427 

 ,  Double  Weight  Vene- 
tian. *437-439 

 ,  Elliptical-headed,  *458- 

461 

 ,  ,  Linings  of,  *459 

 ,  Fitting  Together,  *411, 

*413,  414 

 with       Framed  and 

Splayed  Linings.  M58-461 

 ,  Guard  Beads  for.  *467 

 ■           Head,  *465 

.  ,  Face    Moulds  for, 

*465 

 ,  Preparing,  *466,  467 

 ,  Setting  Out,  *409 

 Hung  on  Pivots,  *462, 

463 

 .Joints  for,  *416 

 Linings,  *466 

 ,  Materials  for,  404 

 Meeting  Rails,  *416,  417 

 ,  Dovetailing, 

*417,  418 

 ,  Template  for, 

.  *417 

 .  ,  "  Mouse  "  for,  *422 

 Pocket,  *418 

 Pulley  Stiles,  *409.  410 

 Rails,  Template  for,  *417 

 .Setting  Out,  *407,  408, 

414 

 ,  Sills  for,  *406,  407 

 ,  Solid,     with  Movable 

Sash,  *427,  428 
 ,         Mullion  Venetian, 

■■M31-437 

 ,  Square  Centre,  *461,  462 

 ,  Venetian,  *431-441 

 ,  ,  Beads  for,  436.  437 

 .  ,  Construction  of. 

-435,  436 

- — -   ,  ,  Double-weight,  *437- 

439 

 ,  .Fitting  Up,  *437 

•    .  .  Large.  *439-441 

   .  .  Pulley    Stiles  of, 

*436 

■    ,  ,  Quantities  for,  435 

 ,  ,  Setting  Out,  *436 


INDEX. 


565 


Sash  Bars,  Wedging  Up.  *421,  422 
  Line,  Materials  for  Replac- 
ing Broken,  422 

 ,  Replacing  Broken,  *422- 

427 

  Windows  witli  Boxed  Shut- 
ters, -441-443 
Saw,  Bow,  *17 

 ,  Dovetail,  17 

  Files,  n7,  18 

 ,Hand,  -16-18  . 

  with  Nibbed  Back,  *16 

  Sets  with  Gauge,  "=18 

 .  ,  Plier,  *18 

 -,  Sharpening,  -17,  18 

  Teeth,  Hammer  Setting,  *18 

 .  ,  Levelling  Down,  18 

 ,  Tenon,  *17 

 ■  Vice,  *17 

Sawing,  Marking  Timber  for,  3, 

*38.  39 

  Stools,  *9 

Scantlings  Defined,  35 

Scarfed     Joint     with  Folding 

Wedges,  =  59 
Scarf  Joint,  Dovetail,  *58 
 ,  Parallel,    with  Joggle 

Ends,  "59 

 ,  Raking,  for  Ridges,  -58 

 .Splayed,  *59 

 ,  ,  with  Folding 

Wedges,  *59 
.  ,  ,  with  Iron  Plates, 

*58 

 ,  Tabled,  *58,  59 

 ,  Tredgold's  Rule  for  Pro- 
portioning, *59 

.  .Vertical,  *59 

Scotch  Fir.  44 

Scotia  Moulding,  *468 

Scrapers.  Steel.  *22 

Scraping  Tools.  *22-24 

Scratch  Tools  for  Mouldings,  *470 

Screens.  *520 

 .  Corridor,   with    Door,  *525- 

528 

 .Hall,  with  Door.  *523-525 

  and  Partitions,  *520 

 .  for  Vestibule,  *529.  530 

Screwdrivers.  -20 

 .  Automatic.  *20 

 .Brace.  20 

 .  Cabinet,  20 

 .  Gimlet-handle.  20 

 .  London.  *20 

Screwed  Straight  Joint.  *62.  65 
Screws.  Bench.  *7,  8 

 .Cup  Wood,  -25 

 .Flat-head,  *25 

 .  Round-head.  *25 

 .Wood.  *24.  25 

Scribing  Door  Rail,  *372 
  Tools,  *3 

Seasoning  Timber  (see  Timber) 
Secret  Dovetail  Joint,  *62,  64 

 Mitered  Joint.  *62.  64 

Segmental  Arches.  Centerings  for. 
*257 

 ,  Setting  Out.  *250 

  Bridge.  Centre  for,  272,  *273 

  Stone  Arch,  Centering  for, 

*277-279 

Segmental-headed  Opening  for 
French  Casements,  *449-458 

Segment  of  Circle,  Obtaining 
Radius  of,  *251 

Semicircular  Arches,  Centering 
for,  *254.  256 

Setting  Saw  Teeth,  *18 

Sham  Dado,  *486-490 

  Half-timber  Work,  *206,  208 

Sharpening  Saw,  *17,  18 

Shaving  Tools,  *11-15 

Shed  Roof.  *160 

"  Shimer "    Patent  Floor-board 

Planing  Machine.  87 
Shippers'  Marks   on  Flooring,  86 
 Timber,  52 


Shooting  Block.  Donkey's-ear,  *4 

 ,  Mitre,  *4 

  Board,  -4 

Shop  Fronts,  Timber  for,  51 
Shores  for  Buildings  of  Unequal 
Heights,  -236 

 .  Dead  or   Vertical.  *239 

 ,  Horizontal  or  Flying.  *235 

 .  Raking.  -233-235 

 .Trestle.  -245 

 .  Vertical  or  Dead,  239 

Shoring,  -215,  231 

  Church  Arcade,  *243-247 

  Corner  House.  -239-242,  366 

 .  Dead,  for  Converting  Dwell- 
ing into  Shop.  *239-242 

 .  Rakers  for,  -'241.  242 

  to  Railway  Arch,  *247-249 

  Timbers,  Scantlings  of,  233 

Shouldered     Dovetail  Halving 
Joints.  *55 

  Tenon  Joints.  *55 

Shoulders  of   Doors,  Posts  for. 
=^'317 

Shrinkage     of     Timber  during 

Seasoning,  34 
Shutter,  Door  with  Movable,  *351- 

357 

  Fitted  in  Outer  Door,  *351-357 

Shutters.   Boxing,  for  Doorway, 

*516-519 

 ,  ,  French  Casements  with, 

M49-453 
Sill.  Oak,  for  Doors,  *317 

  for  Sash  Frame,  *406.  407 

 .  Window,  Timber  for,  52 

Skeleton    Jambs    for  Doorway. 

364 

Skew  Arch  Bridge,  Centering  for, 

*280,  281 
Skirtings.  *481 

  in  Cottage  Work,  *482 

Skylight.  Joiners'  Rods  for.  *302. 

303 

Slag  Felt.  91 
Sliding  Bevel.  -3 

  Door,  Framed  and  Braced. 

*326 

  and      Folding  Partitions, 

*544-549 
Slip  Feather.  *61 
Smoke-dried  Timber,  31 
Smoothing  Planes,  *13,  14 
Soffit  of  Arch,  Developing,  *258. 

259 

 and    Jamb    Door  Linings. 

Jointing,  *449 
 ,  Geometrical  Construction, 

for.  *497,  498 
  Lining,    Elliptical  Conical, 

*497 

 for      Elliptical  -  headed 

Opening,  *496-502 
 .  Obtaining   Development  of. 

498 

  out  of  Solid,  *499,  500 

Soft  Woods.  42,  43 
Sound-proof  Floors,  -91 

  Partitions.  Ill 

Span  Collar  Roof  with  Attic.  *118. 
119 

  Roofs.  *1 16-118 

 with  Collar  Braces,  *116 

Spanish  Chestnut,  48,  49 

  Mahogany.  50 

Spirit  Levels.  -4 

Splayed  Joint.  Dovetailed.  *58 

  Lining.  Veneered.  503.  504 

  Linings  to  Outer  Doors,  *346 

 Two-panelled  Door, 

360.  361 

  Scarf  Joint,  *59 

 with  Folded  Wedges. 

*57.  59 

 Iron  Plates,  *58 

Splay-rebated  Joint,  *62 
Spokeshaves.  *13 
Spoon  Bits.  21 


Spring  Dividers,  *3,  4 

  Hinge  for  Swinging  Doors, 

*541 

Spruce,  American  White,  47 

  Fir,  43,  44 

Square,  Crenellated,  3 

 ,  Joiner's,  3 

 ,  Mitre,  *3 

 .  Plumb,  *4.  5 

 .Try.  -3 

Stable  Doors.  Frameless.  *324.  325 
Stacking  Floor  Boards,  87,  88 

  Timber.  '''29.  30 

 Horizontally.  30 

Staff  Bead  Moulding.  *468 
Staging.  *215 

 ,  Builder's.  *219,  220 

 .  Framing  for.  *60 

Staircase  Partitions  Through  Two 

Storeys.  -103.  104 
Stair  Treads.  Timber  for.  51 
Stand  for  Spectators  in  Window, 

*224 

 Sports  Ground.  *228-230 

  between  Two  Walls.  227 

Star-shakes  in  Timber,  *41 
Steam     Chest     for  Artificially 

Seasoning  Timber,  *33.  34 
Steel  Binders  for  Double  Floors, 

*77,  78 

  Scrapers.  *22 

Stiles,  Door,  Marking  Out,  *352 

 ,  .  Setting  Out.  *327.  328 

 .  Pulley.  Setting  Out  *409.  410 

 .  .  of   Solid  Mullion  Sash 

Frame.  *436 
Stirrup  Irons  for  Framed  Floors. 

*80 

Stone   Gabled  Dormer  Window, 

n96.  197 
Stools.  Sawing.  *9 
Stops.  Bench  (see  Bench  Stops) 

  for  Doors.  *318 

Straightedge.  -3 

Strut  and  Post  Joint.  *61 

Struts   and  Beams.  Strength  of 

Joints  for.  *59.  60 
Strutting.  *81.  82 

 ,  Herringbone,  *70.  81 

 .  Solid.  *81.  82 

Stud  Partitions.  Timber.  *98 
Stump  or  Stub  Tenon  Joints.  *55, 

67 

"  Sturtevant  "  Method  of  Drying 

Timber.  *32 
Sunk  Moulding.  363 
Swedish  Deals.  45 

   .  Quality  Marks  on.  45 

  Timber.  43 

Swing  Door  Frame.  *535 

  and  Vestibule  Framing, 

*531 

Swinging  Doors.  Hanging.  *541- 
644 

 .  Pivot  for.  *544 

 ,  Spring  Hinge  for,  *541 


Tabled  and  Fished  Joint,  *58 

  Joints,  *57 

  Scarf  Joint,  *59 

 with      Keys  and 

Plates  *58 

  and  Splayed  Scarf  Joints,  *57 

.Teak,  49.  50 

I  .Owner's  Mark  on,  *49 

 .  Quantity  Marks  on,  *49 


566 


INDEX. 


Template,  Mitering,  *370 

  for  Sash  Frame  Rails,  *417 

lenon.  Barefaced,  *319 

■  ,  Cutting,  *330 

 Joints,  *55,  56,  *66,  67,  *317- 

319,  -328-330 

 ,  Application  of,  67 

 ,  Divided,  '''55 

 ,  Double,  *67 

 ,  Dovetail,  "67 

 for  Doors,  318,  319 

 ,  Foxtail,  *67 

  ■  ,  Haunclied,  *67 

 ,  Pinned,  *67 

 ,  Proportioning,  67 

 ,  Single,  *67 

 ,  Stump  or  Stub,  *55,  67 

 ,  Tusk,  5^  67 

 ,  Twin,  o7 

  Saw,  ^'17 

  Sawn  and  Ploughed,  *415 

Tenoned  and  Bird's-mouthed 
Shouldered  Joint,  *61 

Tenoning  and  Cogging,  Connect- 
ing Post  by,  *61 

Tension.  Joints  for,  *57 

  and  Compression,  Joints  for, 

*57 

 Cross  Strain,  Joints  for, 

'^=57 

Thumb  Hollows  and  Eounds  for 

Mouldings,  -470,  471 

  Moulding,  *468 

  Rebate  Plane  for  Mouldings, 

*470 

Thunder-shakes  in  Timber,  41 

Tie-beam,  Cambering,  133 

— — -  and  King-post,  Securing,  *124 

•  Rafter,   Joint  between, 

*129,  *133,  134,  *136,  137 

 — ,  Heel  Strap  for,  *129 

 ,  Securing,  to  Rafter,  *132 

Tie-beams,  Tusk  Tenon  Joint  be- 
tween, *125 
Tie,  Dragon,  *125 
Tile  Design  of  Wood-block  Floor, 
*96 

Timber,  *26-53 

 ,  Ameincan  Methods  of  Season- 
ing, *31,  32 

 ,  Annual  Rings  in,  42 

 -,  Artificially  Seasoning,  30-34 

 ,  Balk,  29 

 ,  ,  Defects  in,  *40 

 ,  ,  Lining,  ='38 

  Beams,  Calculating  Strength 

of,  *39,  40 

 ,  Kirkaldy's  Experiments 

on  Strength  of,  40 

 ,  Brands  on,  52 

 ,  Converted,  *35 

 ,  Creosoting,  42 

 ,  Cup-shakes  in,  *40 

 cut  into  Planks,  *35 

— — ,  Doatiness  in,  41 

  for  Dock  Gates,  51 

 Doors,  51 

 ,  Dry  Rot  in,  41,  42 

 ,  Endogenous,  28 

 ,  Erith's  Automatic  Drier  for, 

*32,  33 

 ,  Exogenous,  28 

  for  External  Doors,  51 

 ,  Fir,  Converted,  43 

 ,  -,  Unconverted,  44 

  for  Floor  Blocks,  93 

  — -    Boards,  51,  86 

 Joists.  51 

 Flooring,  86 

 ,  Shippers'  Marks 

on,  86 

 ,  Formation  of.  *26,  27 

 -,  Foxiness  in,  41 

 ,  Good,  Qualities  of,  38 

  for  Half-timber  Work,  51, 199 

 -,  Hard  Woods,  42,  43 

 ,  Heart-shakes  in.  *41 

 ,  Heartwood,  28,  29 


Timber.      Holmsunds',  Quality 

Marks  on,  52 

  for  Internal  Doors,  51 

 ,  Knots  in,  41 

 ,  Lining  Log,  *38 

 ,  Marking,  for  Pit  Sawing,  *38, 

39 

  Partitions,   *98-lll    {see  also 

Partitions) 

  for  Pile  Foundations,  51 

 Pit    Sawing,  Marking, 

-38,  39 

- — -           Planking  to  Earth  Wag- 
gons, 61 

 Preservation,  34,  35 

 ,  Bethell's  Process  of,  34 

 ,  Bouchere's    Process  of, 

34 

 ,  Burnett's  Process  of,  34, 

35,  42 

 Underground,  42 

 ,  Prussian  Fir,  44,  45 

  Quality  Marks,  *45,  46.  53 

—  ,  Dantzic,  -45 

 ,  Holmsunds',  52 

   ,  Riga,  *45 

  ,  Wifsta   Vv^arfs',  52, 

53 

 ,  Rind  Galls  in,  41 

  for  Roof  Trusses,  51 

 ;  Russian,  43,  *45,  46 

 ,  .Quality  Marks  on,  *45, 

46 

 ,  Sap  in.  Function  of,  28 

■  ,  Sapwood,  28,  29,  41 

 ,  Seasoned,  Advantages  of,  29 

 '  Seasoning,  *29-34 

 ,  Artificial,  *30-34 

  — ,  Erith's  Method  of,  *32, 

33 

 ,  McNeile's  Process  of,  31 

 ,  Natural  Process  of,  29, 

30 

■ —  ,  Shrinkage  during,  *34 

 ,  "  Sturtevant  "  Method 

of,  *32 

 ,  Selecting,  38 

 ,  Shipping  Marks  on,  52 

  for  Shop  Fronts,  51 

  Shrinking  during  Seasoning, 

=^^34 

 ,  Smoke-dried,  31 

 .  Soft  Woods,  42,  43 

  Stacked  Horizontally,  30 

 ,  Stacking,  *29,  30 

 for  Stair  Treads,  51 

 ,  Star-shakes  in,  *41 

 ,  Steam  Chest  for  Seasoning, 

*33,  34 

 ,  Stiffest     Beam     Cut  from 

Round  Log,  *38 

 ,  Strength  of,  *39,  41 

 :  Strongest  Beam    Cut  from 

Round  Log,  *37 

■  ,  Structure  of,  *26 

 ,  "  Sturtevant  "     Method  of 

Drying,  *32 

 ,  Swedish,  43 

 ,  Thunder-shakes  in,  41 

  Trees,  Growth  of,  *26 

 ,  Tried-up  Edges  of,  327 

 ,  Trying  Up,  326,  327 

 ;  Twisted  Fibres  in,  41,  42 

 ,  Upsets  in,  *42 

 ,  Varieties  of,  43-51 

  for  Various  Purposes,  51,  52 

 ;  Waney  Edges  in,  *42 

  for  Weather-boarding,  51,  52 

 ,  Weight  of,  39 

— ,  Wet  Rot  in,  42 

 ,  Wifsta  Warfs  Quality  Marks 

on.  52,  53 

 ,  Wind-cracks  in,  *42 

 for  Window  Sills,  52 

■ —   Wood-block  Floors,  93 

Timbering  for  Hipped  End  Roof, 

*171 

Toe  Joints,  *56 


Tongued  Butt  Joint,  *62 
Tools,  *l-25 

■  •,  Abrading,  *22-24 

 ,  Boring,  -20-22 

■  ,  Classification  of,  1 

■  ,  Geometrical,  *l-4 

  for  Holding  Work,  *5-ll 

 ,  Impulsion,  *18-20 

 ,  Marking,  *3 

 ,  Paring,  *11-15 

 ■  of  Percussion,  *18-20 

 ,  Scraping,  *22-24 

 ,  Scribing,  *3 

 ,  Shaving,  *11-15 

  for  Supporting  Work,  *5-ll 

Torus  Moulding,  *468 

Tower  Gantry,  Derrick,  *221,  222 

Traveller,    Gantry    to  Support. 

*223,  224 
Tredgold's  Centering,  *277 

  Notching  Joints,  *55 

  Rule  for  Proportioning  Scarf 

Joints,  *59 
Trestle  Shores,  *245 
Trestles.  *9 

Triangular      Hopper,  Mitered 

Angles  of,  *553,  554 
Tried-up  Edges  of  Timber,  327 
Trimmer,  Housing  Joists  to,  *71, 

73 

  and  Joists,  Tusk  Tenon  and 

Keyed  Joint  for,  *71 

 ,  Siipporting  Arch,  *72 

Trimming  Joists,  *72 

  for  Floor,  *71 

  round  Openings,  *72-74 

Trueing  Planes,  *13 
Truss  (see  Roof) 

Trussed  Beams,  Floors  with,  *80, 
81 

 "  Framed  "  Partitions,  *101 

 ,  Joints  for,  *101,  102 

 Partitions,  *78,  100,  *109,  110 

 ,  Joints  for,  *100 

Trying  Plane,  ''13 
Trying-up  Framing,  *326,  327 
Try  Square,  *3 

 ,  Use  of,  327 

Tunnel,  Arch  Centering  for,  *279, 
280 

Turkey  Oilstones,  •  23 

Turpin's      Patent  Wood-block 

Floor,  *96 
Tusk  Tenon  Joints,  *56,  67 
 between  Tie-beams, 

*125 

 and  Keyed  Joint,  *71 

Twisted  Fibres  in  Timber.  *41,  42 
Twist-nose  Bits,  *21 
Tympanum  Panels,  *538 


IT 


Upsets  in  Timber,  *42 


V 


Vaulting,  Barrel,  Centering  for, 
*270-272 

 ,  Groin,  Centering  for,  *284-286 

Veneered     Splayed    Linings  to 

Opening  with  Circular  Head, 

*503 

Veneer  for  Geometrical  Splayed 

Linings,  *495.  496 
Venetian  Sash  Frames,  *431-441 
 ,  Double-weight,  437- 

439 

 ,  Large,  *439-441 


INDEX. 


567 


Venetian    Sash     Frames,  Solid 

Mullion,  -'431 
Vertical  Scarf  Joint,  *59 
Vestibule  Doors,  *539 

  Framing,  Cornice  for,  *536 

 ,  Panels  of,  -540 

 .Pilasters  of,  *537,  539 

 and  Swing  Doors,  *551 

  Screen,  *529,  530 

Vice.  Instantaneous  Grip,  *7 

 ,  Saw,  *17 

Villa  Roof.  n63,  164 


W 


Wainscot  Oak,  48 

 .Dutch,  48 

Wainscoting,  Panelled,  *507,  508 
Wall    Panelling    and  Enriched 

Cornice,  *508-516 
  Plate  for  Supporting  Joists, 

*82 


Walls,  Supporting  Joists  by,  *82 
Waney  Edges  in  Timber,  *42 
Warrington  Hammer,  *18 
Washita  Oilstones,  23,  24 
Weather-boarding,  Timber  for.  51, 
52 

Wedge  Cramps,  *9 

Wedging-up  Sash  Frames,  *421,  422 

  Two-panel  Door,  *331 

Wet  Rot  in  Timber,  42 
White  Deal,  Baltic,  43,  44 

 ,  Russian,  46 

  Fir.  44 

  Spruce.  American,  47 

Wifsta  Warfs'  Quality  Marks  on 

Timber,  52,  53 
Wind-cracks  in  Timber,  *42 
Window  {see  also  Sash) 

 .  Bay  Dormer.  *186 

Canted.  Joiners'  Rods  for, 
=300,  302 

Casement,  *428-430,  *443-446 
 ,  to  Open  Inwards,  *443- 

446 

 .Small,  *430,  431 

Dormer  *180-198 

 ,  in  Mansard  Roof,  *184, 

186 


Window,     Dormer,     in  North 
Country  Style.  *187-196 

 .  .  Stone  Gabled,  *196,  197 

 -,  Elliptical,  Centering  for,  *257 

 -,  Elliptical-headed.  *446-449 

 .  French  Casement,  to  Open 

Inwards,  *443-446 

 ,  Projecting,  *200 

  Sills,  Timber  for,  52 

■  ,  Square.  Joiners'   Rods  for, 

=297-299 

  Stand  for  Spectators,  *224 

 ,  Supporting    Upper  Project- 
ing, *209 
Wood  (see  Timber) 
Wood-block  Floors  (see  Floors) 
Wrought  Clasp  Nails,  24 


Yellow  Deal,  43,  44 
 ■  Pine.  American.  47 


Printed  by 

Cassell  and  Company,  Limited,  La  Belle  Sauvage, 
London,  E.G. 


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